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Adobe Contract Checking

This library is for checking that software contracts are upheld. In C++ these checks can be especially important for safety because failure to satisfy contracts typically leads to undefined behavior, which can manifest as crashes, data loss, and security vulnerabilities.

This library provides macros for checking preconditions and invariants, and can be viewed as an improvement upon the standard assert macro. However, the discipline and rationales documented here are just as important to the library's value as are its mechanics.

Design by Contract

Design by Contract is the industry-standard way to describe the requirements and guarantees of any software component. It is based on three concepts:

• Preconditions: what the caller of a function must ensure for the function to behave as documented. A precondition violation indicates a bug in the caller.

• Postconditions describe a function's side-effects and return value. Postconditions need not be upheld if the function reports an error (such as memory exhaustion), or if preconditions were violated. Otherwise, a postcondition violation indicates a bug in the callee.

• Invariants: conditions that always hold at one or more specific points in the code. The most common kind of invariants are class invariants, which hold wherever it is valid to inspect an instance from outside the class, but other invariants (especially loop invariants) are also useful.

Postconditions should be checked by unit tests (rationale).

Documenting Contracts

The minimal documentation required for any component is its contract. Writing this documentation need not be a burden; usually, a short sentence fragment is sufficient (examples).

• The contract of a function describes its preconditions, postconditions (which include the return value).
• The contract of a class describes its publicly-visible invariants.

Documentation is the primary vehicle for expressing contracts

Rationale

1. Some contracts cannot be checked at runtime. For example, there's no way to check these preconditions:

   /// Returns the frobnication of `p` and `f`.
   ///
   /// - Precondition: `p` points to an initialized object.
   /// - Precondition: `f(x)` returns a value from `0` through `1.0`
   ///   for any `x`.”
   auto frob(X* p, float (*f)(int)) -> bool;

2. Reasoning locally about code depends on being able to understand the contract of each component the code uses without looking at the component's implementation. From a client's point of view, contract checks are hidden inside the implementation.

Additionally describing contracts in code and checking them at runtime can be a powerful way to catch bugs early and prevent their damaging effects. That's the role of this library.

How Reported Errors Fit In

The condition that causes a function to throw an exception or otherwise report an error to its caller should not be treated as a precondition. Instead, make the error reporting behavior part of the function's specification: document the behavior and test it to make sure that it works. Also, do not describe the error report as part of the postcondition. Reporting an error to the caller exempts a function from fulfilling postconditions and can be thought of as an unavoidable failure to fulfill postconditions.

For example:

/// Returns a pointer to a colorful widget.
///
/// Throws std::bad_alloc if memory is exhausted.
std::unique_ptr<Widget> build_widget();

The first line of documentation above describes the function's postcondition. The second line describes its error reporting, separately from the postcondition. You can eliminate the need to document exceptions by setting a project-wide policy that, unless a function is noexcept, it can throw anything. You can eliminate the need to document returned errors by encoding the ability to return an error in the function's signature. Documenting which exceptions can be thrown or errors reported is not crucial, but documenting the fact that an error can occur is.

Unless otherwise specified in the function's documentation, a reported error means all objects the function would otherwise modify are invalid for all uses, except as the target of destruction or assignment. Discarding this invalid data is the obligation of code that stops error propagation to callers.

Because this invalid data must be discarded, code that reports or propagates errors need not uphold class invariants; the only properties of the class that must be maintained are destructibility and assignability. Note that this policy is less strict than what is implied by the basic exception safety guarantee, and supersedes the stricter policy with the endorsement of its inventor.

Upholding the obligation to discard invalid mutated data is reasonably easy if types under mutation have value semantics, because data forms a tree and the invalidated data is always uniquely a part of the objects being mutated at the level of the error-handling code. Otherwise it may be necessary to discard other parts of the object graph.

The usual, and most useful, way of specifying that data under mutation is not invalidated is by making the strong guarantee that there are no effects in case of an error (where possible without loss of efficiency). When the callee can make that promise, it exempts the caller from discarding invalid data.

Basic C++ Usage

This is a header-only library. To use it from C++, simply put the include directory of this repository in your #include path, and #include <adobe/contract_checks.hpp>.

#include <adobe/contract_checks.hpp>

The two macros used to check contracts,ADOBE_PRECONDITION and ADOBE_INVARIANT, each take one required argument and one optional argument:

• condition (required): an expression convertible to bool; if true, the contract was upheld and the macro has no effects.
• message (optional): an expression convertible to const char* pointing to a null-terminated message. The default message value is the empty string, "".

The precise effects of a contract violation depend on this library's configuration.

For example,

#include <adobe/contract_checks.hpp>
#include <climits>

/// A half-open range of integers.
///
/// - Invariant: start() <= end().
class int_range {
  /// The lower bound; if `*this` is non-empty, its
  /// least contained value.
  int _start;
  /// The upper bound; if `*this` is non-empty, one
  /// greater than its greatest contained value.
  int _end;

  /// Returns `true` if and only if the invariants are intact.
  bool is_valid() const { return start() <= end(); }
public:
  /// An instance with the given bounds.
  ///
  /// - Precondition: `end >= start`.
  int_range(int start, int end) : _start(start), _end(end) {
    ADOBE_PRECONDITION(end >= start, "invalid range bounds.");
    ADOBE_INVARIANT(is_valid());
  }

  /// Returns the lower bound: if `*this` is non-empty, its
  /// least contained value.
  int start() const { return _start; }

  /// Returns the upper bound; if `*this` is non-empty, one
  /// greater than its greatest contained value.
  int end() const { return _end; }

  /// Increases the upper bound by 1.
  ///
  /// - Precondition: `end() < INT_MAX`.
  void grow_rightward() {
    ADOBE_PRECONDITION(end() < INT_MAX);
    int old_end = end();
    _end += 1;
    ADOBE_INVARIANT(is_valid());
  }

  /// more methods...
};

Configuration

The behavior of this library is configured by one preprocessor symbol, ADOBE_CONTRACT_VIOLATION. It can be defined to one of three strings, or be left undefined, in which case it defaults to verbose.

• ADOBE_CONTRACT_VIOLATION=verbose: as much information as possible is collected from the site of a detected contract violation and reported to the standard error stream before std::terminate() is called.

• ADOBE_CONTRACT_VIOLATION=lightweight: When a contract violation is detected, std::terminate() is invoked. Aside from code to check the condition and call terminate, none of the arguments to a contract checking macro generates any code or data.

• ADOBE_CONTRACT_VIOLATION=unsafe: Contract checking macros have no effect and generate no code or data. Not recommended for general use, but can be useful for measuring the overall performance impact of checking in a program.

• ADOBE_CONTRACT_VIOLATION=custom_verbose: When a contract violation is detected, a custom verbose handler is invoked. The client must define the handler in the adobe namespace with the signature:

  [[noreturn]] void ::adobe::contract_violated_verbose(const char *condition,
    adobe::contract_violation_kind kind, const char *file, std::uint32_t line,
    const char *message) {
      // implementation
  }

  The parameters are a string representation of the failed condition, the contract violation kind (precondition or invariant), the file and line number of the failed check, and the message parameter to the failing check macro, or the empty string if no message was provided. The function should report the violation in a way that is appropriate for the application, and must not return to its caller.

• ADOBE_CONTRACT_VIOLATION=custom_lightweight: When a contract violation is detected, a custom lightweight handler is invoked. The client must define the handler in the adobe namespace with the signature:

  [[noreturn]] void ::adobe::contract_violated_lightweight() {
      // implementation
  }

  The function should report the violation in a way that is appropriate for the application, and must not return to its caller.

In verbose and lightweight modes, a failed check ultimately calls std::terminate() because:

1. Continuing in the face of a detected bug is considered harmful, and
2. Unlike other methods of halting, std::terminate() allows for emergency shutdown measures.

This library can only have one configuration in an executable, so the privilege of choosing a configuration for all components always belongs to the top-level project in a build.

To avoid ODR violations, any binary libraries (not built from source) that use this library must use the same version of this library, and if they use this library in public header files, must have been built with the same value of ADOBE_CONTRACT_VIOLATION.

Basic CMake Usage

To use this library from CMake and uphold the discipline described above, you might put something like this in your project's top level CMakeLists.txt:

include(FetchContent)
if(PROJECT_IS_TOP_LEVEL)
  FetchContent_Declare(
    adobe-contract-checks
    GIT_REPOSITORY https://github.com/stlab/adobe-contract-checks.git
    GIT_TAG        <this library's release version>
  )
  FetchContent_MakeAvailable(adobe-contract-checks)

  # Set adobe-contract-checks configuration default based on build
  # type.
  if(CMAKE_BUILD_TYPE EQUALS "Debug")
    set(default_ADOBE_CONTRACT_VIOLATION "verbose")
  else()
    set(default_ADOBE_CONTRACT_VIOLATION "lightweight")
  endif()
  # declare the option so user can configure on CMake command-line or
  # in CMakeCache.txt.
  option(ADOBE_CONTRACT_VIOLATION
    "Behavior when a contract violation is detected"
    "${default_ADOBE_CONTRACT_VIOLATION}")
endif()
find_package(adobe-contract-checks)

# Configure usage of this library by all targets the same way.
# (repeated in each CMakeLists.txt that adds C++ targets).
if(DEFINED ADOBE_CONTRACT_VIOLATION)
  add_compile_definitions(
    "ADOBE_CONTRACT_VIOLATION=${ADOBE_CONTRACT_VIOLATION}")
endif()

# --- your project's targets -----

add_library(my-library my-library.cpp)
target_link_libraries(my-library PRIVATE adobe-contract-checks)

add_executable(my-executable my-executable.cpp)
target_link_libraries(my-executable PRIVATE adobe-contract-checks)

Recommendations

• Start by checking whatever you can, and worry about performance later. Checks are often critical for safety. Configuration options can be used to mitigate or eliminate costs later if necessary. That said, do not add checks that change algorithmic complexity. Turning an O(1) operation into an O(n) operation is not acceptable.

• If you have to prioritize, precondition checks are the most important; they are your last line of defense against undefined behavior.

  Class invariant checks can often give you more bang for your buck, though, because they can be used to eliminate the need for precondition checks and verbose documentation across many functions. For example, the second function below benefits by accepting a date type whose invariant ensures its validity.

  // Returns the day of the week corresponding to the date described
  // by "<year>-<month>-<day>" (interpreted in ISO standard date
  // format).
  //
  // Precondition: "<year>-<month>-<day>" is a valid ISO standard date.
  day_of_the_week day(int year, int month, int day) {
    ADOBE_PRECONDITION(is_valid_date(year, month, day));
    // implementation starts here.
  }
  
  // ------- vs -------
  
  // Returns the day of the week corresponding to `d`.
  day_of_the_week day(date d) {
    // implementation starts here.
  }

• The conditions in your checks should not have side-effects that change program behavior; readers expect to be able to skip over these checks when reasoning about code.

• Group all precondition checks immediately after a function's opening brace, and don't allow any code to sneak in before them.

• Give your struct or class a bool is_valid() const method that returns true if and only if invariants are intact, so that invariant condition checking can be centralized. Invoke ADOBE_INVARIANT(is_valid()) from each public mutating friend or member function or constructor just before each return, or before *this becomes visible to any other component such as a callback parameter... except in the case where an error is reported (rationale).

  Base classes should define a protected virtual is_valid() member. Derived class overrides should begin by checking is_valid()(s) of their base classes.

      bool is_valid() const override {
        return base::is_valid() && some_derived_class_invariant();
      }

• If your program needs to take emergency shutdown measures before termination, put those in a terminate handler that eventually calls std::abort().

  #include <cstdlib>
  #include <exception>
  
  [[noreturn]] void emergency_shutdown() noexcept;
  
  const std::terminate_handler previous_terminate_handler
    = std::set_terminate(emergency_shutdown);
  
  [[noreturn]] void emergency_shutdown() noexcept
  {
    // emergency shutdown measures here.
  
    if (previous_terminate_handler != nullptr)
      { previous_terminate_handler(); }
    std::abort();
  }
  ...

  That way, other reasons for sudden termination, such as uncaught exceptions, will still cause emergency shutdown to execute.

• Don't disable critical checks in shipping code unless a measurable unacceptable performance cost is found, and after assessing the risk of undefined behavior should the check be skipped. In that case, disable the expensive checks selectively. For example, if you have NDEBUG defined in your release build, you can enable the check for debug builds only.

  #ifndef NDEBUG // too expensive for release
  ADOBE_PRECONDITION(some_expensive_call());
  #endif
  

• Include a document in your project describing standard preconditions that don't need to be specified explicitly, and that hold unless explicitly contradicted by documentation. They should still be checked, but not having to explicitly document that every const char* refers to a null-terminated byte string, for example, can be a big win.

Rationales

Why This Library Provides No Postcondition Check

Checking postconditions is practically the entire raison d'être of unit tests, and many good frameworks for unit testing exist. Adding a postcondition check to this library would just create confusion about where postcondition checks belong and about the purpose of unit testing. Also, postcondition checks for most mutating functions need to make an initial copy of everything being mutated, which can be prohibitively expensive even for debug builds.

Why This Library Does Not Throw Exceptions

In the original Eiffel programming language implementation of Design by Contract, a contract violation would cause an exception to be thrown. On the surface, that might seem at first like a good response to bug detection, but there are several problems:

• It's important that some functions, such as those used in destructors, catch blocks, or noexcept functions, never throw exceptions. Contract checking is useful everywhere.
• Exceptions cause stack unwinding, which destroys information that otherwise could be vital to finding the cause of a bug.
• Exceptions are for conditions where the program can, after taking some recovery action, return to normal execution. If there's no path back to normal execution, we might as well terminate the program (possibly after taking emergency measures). But when a bug is discovered, the potential damage to program state is arbitrary, and there is no known recovery action. Also see the section on defensive programming below.

If your function really needs to throw an exception, that should be a documented part of its contract, so that response can be tested for and callers can respond appropriately. See How Reported Errors Fit In for more information.

About Defensive Programming

According to Wikipedia:

Defensive programming is a form of defensive design intended to develop programs that are capable of detecting potential security abnormalities and make predetermined responses.[1] It ensures the continuing function of a piece of software under unforeseen circumstances.

In principle, defensive programming as defined above is a good idea. As defensive programming is commonly practiced, though, “unforeseen circumstances” usually mean the discovery of a bug at runtime. Trying to keep running in the presence of bugs is in general a losing battle:

• Code is littered with checks that obscure the logic of the program.
• The code paths that attempt to recover from bugs:
  • increase program size.
  • are almost never tested.
  • are often incorrect.
  • have unpredictable results, including data loss and security vulnerability.
  • create an infinite regression of self-checking, because in theory they could be buggy themselves.
• Bugs go undetected so code quality suffers.
• Even if bugs are logged:
  • they are often deprioritized because they are not crashes, so code quality suffers.
  • developers are robbed of any chance to get a debuggable program image; debugging becomes much harder, so code quality suffers.
• Nobody can actually think through the implications of everything being potentially buggy, so code beomes hard to reason about. Maintenance is more error-prone and quality suffers.

Note that in an unsafe language like C++, a seemingly recoverable condition like the discovery of a negative index can easily be the result of undefined behavior that also scrambled memory or causes “impossible” execution.

Development

The usual procedures for development with CMake apply. One typical set of commands might be:

cmake -DBUILD_TESTING=1 -Wno-dev -S . -B ../build -GNinja
cmake --build ../build
ctest --output-on-failure --test-dir ../build

VSCode CMake Plugin Note: Test Explorer integration has been disabled in the .vscode/settings.json file, because it breaks test detection. If you see _NOT_BUILT in the CTest output, test explorer integration was somehow enabled at configure time.