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dofd.tex
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dofd.tex
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\documentclass[11pt, oneside]{scrartcl} % use "amsart" instead of "article" for AMSLaTeX format
\usepackage{geometry} % See geometry.pdf to learn the layout options. There are lots.
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% TeX will automatically convert eps --> pdf in pdflatex
\usepackage{amssymb}
\usepackage{newunicodechar}
\usepackage{multicol}
\usepackage{libertine}
\usepackage{hyperref}
%SetFonts
%SetFonts
\title{Depth of Field in Depth}
\author{Jeff Conrad\\for the Large Format Page}
%\date{} % Activate to display a given date or no date
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\newcommand{\f}[1]{\mbox{\raisebox{2pt}{\footnotesize $f$\hspace{-1.2pt}}/\hspace{-0.6pt}\raisebox{-0.6pt}{\small #1}}}
\begin{document}
\maketitle
\vfill
\begin{multicols}{2}
\footnotesize
\tableofcontents
\end{multicols}
\newpage
\section{Introduction}
%\subsection{}
In many types of photography, it is desirable to have the entire image sharp. A camera can precisely focus on only one plane; a point object in any other plane is imaged as a disk rather than a point, and the farther a plane is from the plane of focus, the larger the disk. However, if the disk, known as the blur spot, is sufficiently small, it is indistinguishable from a point, so that a zone of acceptable sharpness exists between two planes on either side of the plane of focus. This zone is known as the \emph{depth of field} (DoF). The closest plane is the near limit of the DoF, the farthest plane is the far limit of the DoF. The diameter of a “sufficiently small” blur spot is known as the \emph{acceptable circle of confusion}, or simply as the \emph{circle of confusion} (CoC).
Controlling DoF ultimately is quite simple---the aperture stop controls the size of the blur spot, and the focus determines the position of the DoF. As the size of the aperture is decreased (or the $f$-number increased), the size of the defocus blur spot decreases and the DoF increases. This increase does not continue indefinitely, however. Diffraction, which affects the plane of focus as well as the limits of DoF, increases as $f$-number is increased. Eventually the effect of diffraction is greater than the benefit of decreasing the effect of defocus, so that additional increase of $f$-number results in decreased sharpness even at the limits of DoF. Moreover, as $f$-number is increased, exposure time also increases, so that motion blur is more likely. Optimum camera settings usually involve a tradeoff among sharpness at the plane of focus, sharpness at DoF limits, and motion blur.
The task then is one of determining an appropriate $f$-number and the focus that will maximize the DoF. This paper develops basic formulae for depth of field for both symmetrical and asymmetrical lenses. The basis for a circle of confusion is reviewed, alternative criteria for depth of field are discussed, and the combined effects of defocus and diffraction are examined. The concept of minimum and maximum acceptable $f$-numbers is revisited: the minimum is determined by the conventional CoC, and the maximum by a simple formula similar to Hansma’s (1996) method for determining optimum $f$-number.
The requirements of practical photography are less rigorous than those of the lens designer; moreover, practical treatment of DoF requires several simplifying assumptions to make the task manageable. Accordingly,
\begin{enumerate}
\item Gaussian (paraxial) optics is assumed in the development of all formulae. Strictly speaking, this is valid only for rays infinitesimally close to the lens axis; however, this assumption has proven more than adequate for calculating DoF. Moreover, if nonparaxial expressions were to be used, the results would, for practical purposes, be unusably complex.
\item Lenses are assumed unit focusing, and except for the section Depth of Field for an Asymmetrical Lens, are assumed symmetrical. Large-format lenses are unit focusing,
and except for telephotos, are nearly symmetrical. Because the effects of asymmetry are minor unless the asymmetry is substantial and the magnification approaching unity or greater, this simplified treatment is justified in most cases for large-format lenses.
Many, if not most, small-format lenses of other than normal focal length are asymmetrical, and many are not unit focusing. However, for other than closeup lenses, the effect of asymmetry is minimal, and close focus usually is approximately 10$\times$ focal length; consequently, the change in focal length from the non-unit focusing is minimal, and the simplifying assumptions give reasonable results. However, lens asymmetry must be considered when determining the DoF of an internal-focusing macro lens, as discussed in the section Effect of Lens Asymmetry.
\item Lens aberrations are ignored. Real lenses have optical defects that cause the image to be other than predicted by Gaussian optics, and these aberrations are the primary cause of image degradation at large apertures. Including the effects of aberrations is nearly impossible, because doing so requires knowledge of the specific lens design. Moreover, in well-designed lenses, most aberrations are well corrected, and at least near the optical axis, often are almost negligible when the lens is stopped down 2--3 steps from maximum aperture. At this point, a lens often is described, if somewhat optimistically, as \emph{diffraction limited}. Because lenses usually are stopped down at least to this point when DoF is of interest, treating the lens as diffraction-limited is reasonable. Some residual aberrations are present even in well-designed lenses, and their effects usually increase with distance from the lens axis, so the sharpness realized in practice will be somewhat less than suggested by this discussion.
\item Diffraction is ignored in the development of the basic formulae, although it is treated in detail in the section on Diffraction.
\end{enumerate}
\section{Circle of Confusion}
A photograph is perceived as acceptably sharp when the blur spot is smaller than the acceptable circle of confusion. The size of the “acceptable” circle of confusion for the original image (i.\,e., film or electronic sensor) depends on three factors:
\begin{enumerate}
\item Visual acuity.
\item The distance at which the final image is viewed.
\item The enlargement of the final image from the original image.
\end{enumerate}
\subsection{Visual Acuity}
Few studies have directly addressed the eye’s ability to distinguish a point from a disk of finite diameter, but many studies have dealt with lines, and several criteria of acuity have been established, of which two are:
\begin{description}
\item [Minimum recognizable] which measures the ability to recognize
specific objects, such as letters, and this criterion is the basis
for measuring vision using the familiar Snellen charts. On the line
corresponding to normal (6/6; 20/20 in the United States) vision,
a letter subtends 5 minutes of arc. The letters are designed so that
lines and spaces are of equal width; each letter feature (such as
the lower bar on the letter “E”) subtends 1 minute of arc, and each
line-space pair subtends 2 minutes of arc, corresponding to a
spatial frequency of 30\,cycles/degree (cpd).
\item [Minimum resolvable] which measures the ability to resolve two
lines. This task is slightly less demanding than recognition, and
the normal eye can resolve lines on a sinusoidal grid at spatial
frequencies slightly greater than 40\,cpd (Campbell and Green 1965).
Jacobson (2000) presents similar data, and Ray (2002) cites a
threshold of 9 line pairs/mm at 250\,mm, which also is in good
agreement.
A related criterion is minimum visible, which measures the ability to detect a disk or line against a contrasting background. This task is less demanding than resolution of two lines or disks, and accordingly, the threshold is smaller. For a disk, the threshold is approximately 0.07\,mm at a 250\,mm viewing distance (Williams 1990). For a line, the threshold is even less, in some cases a fraction of a minute of arc. Detection is an entirely different matter than distinguishing a finite disk from a point, or one line from two lines. For example, a telephone line against a light sky can be detected at a far greater distance than that at which it can be determined whether the line is one cable or several cables separated by short distances.
\end{description}
Common practice in photography has been to assume that the diameter of the smallest disk distinguishable from a point corresponds to the Snellen line-pair recognition criterion of 2 minutes of arc, although the line-resolution criterion arguably is more appropriate. At the normal viewing distance of 250\,mm, the Snellen criterion is equivalent to a blur spot diameter of 0.145\,mm. Visual acuity tests are done using high-contrast targets; under conditions of normal contrast, a more realistic blur spot diameter may be about 0.2\,mm. The value of 0.2\,mm is commonly cited for final-image CoC; in angular terms, this would subtend 2.75 minutes of arc, corresponding to a spatial frequency of approximately 22\,cpd. Of course, some individuals have greater visual acuity than others.
\subsection{Viewing Distance}
The ``correct'' viewing distance is the distance at which the perspective in the final image matches that seen through the taking lens. This distance is determined by multiplying the focal length of the taking lens by the enlargement of the final image. For example, an 8''$\times$10'' final image from a 4$\times$5 original image is approximately a 2$\times$ enlargement; if the taking lens were 210\,mm, the “correct” viewing distance would be 420\,mm.
It is more common, however, to view an image at the closest comfortable distance, known as the near distance for distinct vision, which for most people is approximately 250\,mm—and that is the viewing distance normally assumed.
A comfortable viewing distance also is one at which the angle of view is no greater than approximately 60°; for an 8''$\times$10'' final image, this angle of view is obtained at close to the standard distance of 250\,mm. When the entire image is to be viewed, the viewing distance for an image larger than 8''$\times$10'' is likely to be greater than the standard 250\,mm, and in that case, a final-image CoC larger than the standard 0.2\,mm may be appropriate. Equivalently, it may be reasonable to treat a larger final image as if it were 8''$\times$10'' and use the standard
0.2\,mm final-image CoC.
\subsection{Image Enlargement}
If the original image is smaller than 8''$\times$10'', it must be enlarged to produce an 8''$\times$10'' final image, and the CoC for the original image is reduced by the required enlargement. For example, if a full-frame 35\,mm image is enlarged to fit the short dimension of an 8''$\times$10'' final image, the enlargement is approximately 8$\times$, and the CoC for the original image then is 1⁄8 of the CoC for the final image. As previously mentioned, it often is reasonable to treat any image larger than 8''$\times$10'' as if it were 8''$\times$10'', using the standard final-image CoC of 0.2\,mm.
\subsection{Standard Values for CoC}
Assuming a viewing distance of 250\,mm, a final-image CoC of 0.20\,mm, and 2$\times$ enlargement gives an acceptable CoC of 0.1\,mm for a 4$\times$5 image, and this is the value commonly cited. Values for full-frame 35\,mm images are less consistent: assuming the standard viewing distance and 8$\times$ enlargement gives an acceptable CoC of 0.025\,mm; however, commonly cited CoCs are 0.025\,mm to 0.035\,mm, probably representing different assumptions of final-image size. It should be obvious that the choice of CoC is somewhat arbitrary, and dependent on assumed reproduction and viewing conditions. A comparatively large CoC may suffice for a billboard, but a CoC smaller than the standard value will be required if one intends to critically examine small areas of large images at close distances.
Many hand-camera lenses incorporate depth-of-field scales to facilitate setting the focus and $f$-number to obtain the desired depth of field. Depending on how closely the viewing conditions assumed in generating these DoF scales match the actual viewing conditions, the DoF obtained using these scales may or may not be appropriate. For example, some 35\,mm camera manufacturers assume only 5$\times$ enlargement of the original image when generating DoF scales; if the actual final image is an 8$\times$ enlargement, the DoF obtained using the lens DoF scales may be insufficient.
\subsection{Practical Limits to DoF}
It might appear that any arbitrary sharpness at the DoF limits can be achieved simply by decreasing the CoC. However, decreasing the CoC eventually encounters two practical problems: motion blur and diffraction. As will be seen, the CoC is inversely related to $f$-number, so that a smaller CoC requires a greater $f$-number, and consequently, a longer exposure time; if significant DoF is required, the exposure may become long enough to allow motion blur. Increasing the $f$-number increases diffraction, softening all parts of the image; eventually the effect of diffraction exceeds the benefit of reducing the CoC, even at the DoF limits. In most cases, motion blur is a problem long before diffraction.
The $f$-number determined from the CoC is the minimum that will give acceptable sharpness. In some cases, sharpness at the DoF limits can be improved by using a greater $f$-number; this can be useful if it later is decided to make a larger final image. It will be seen that there also is a maximum $f$-number, beyond which DoF-limit sharpness decreases, so that when other considerations permit, the most appropriate $f$-number between the minimum and maximum values can be chosen. This is discussed in detail in the sections Optimum $f$-Number from MTF and Decreasing CoC to Improve DoF-Limit Sharpness.
\section{Depth of Field for a Symmetrical Lens }
\label{sec:depth-field-symm}
\subsection{Limits of Depth of Field}
\label{sec:limits-depth-field}
\begin{figure}[htbp] % figure placement: here, top, bottom, or page
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{dofd-figures/fig_dofd_1}
\caption{DoF for Symmetrical Lens}
\label{fig:symlens}
\end{figure}
%%% Figure 1. DoF for Symmetrical Lens
A symmetrical lens is illustrated in Figure~\ref{fig:symlens}. The object at distance $u$ is in focus at image distance $v$. The objects at distances $u_\mathrm{f}$ and $u_\mathrm{n}$ would be in focus at image distances $v_\mathrm{f}$ and $v_\mathrm{n}$, respectively; at image distance $v$, they are imaged as blur spots. The depth of field is controlled by the aperture stop diameter $d$. When the blur spot diameter is equal to the acceptable circle of confusion $c$, the near and far limits of DoF are at $u_\mathrm{n}$ and $u_\mathrm{f}$. From similar triangles,
\begin{equation}
\frac{v_\mathrm{n} - v}{v_\mathrm{n}} = \frac c d
% #1
\label{eq:vni}
\end{equation}
and
\begin{equation}
\frac{v - v_\mathrm{f}}{v_\mathrm{f}} = \frac c d
% #2
\label{eq:vfi}
\end{equation}
It usually is more convenient to work with the lens $f$-number than the aperture diameter; the
$f$-number $N$ is related to the lens focal length $f$ and the aperture diameter $d$ by
\begin{equation}
N=\frac f d\quad ;
\label{eq:N}
\end{equation}
substituting into Eqs.~\ref{eq:vni} and \ref{eq:vfi} and rearranging gives
\begin{equation}
v_\mathrm{n}=\frac{fv}{f -N c}
% #3
\label{eq:vn}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
v_\mathrm{f}=\frac{fv}{f + N\!c}
% #4
\label{eq:vf}
\end{equation}
The image distance $v$ is related to the object distance $u$ by the thin-lens equation
\begin{equation}
\frac1u+\frac1v=\frac1f
% #5
\label{eq:thinlens}
\end{equation}
Rearranging into the form
\begin{equation}
v=\frac{uf}{u-f}\quad,
\end{equation}
substituting into Eqs.~\ref{eq:vn} and \ref{eq:vf}, and rearranging yields the corresponding relations in object space:
\begin{eqnarray}
u_\mathrm{n}&=&\frac{uf^2}{f^2 + N\!c(u-f)}\label{eq:un:os}\\
u_\mathrm{f}&=&\frac{uf^2}{f^2 - N\!c(u-f)}\label{eq:uf:os}
% # 6,7
\label{eq:unf}
\end{eqnarray}
Image magnification is given by\footnote{Following optical convention, this quantity would be negative to indicate an inverted image. In photography, the sign usually is omitted.}
\begin{equation}
m=\frac v u
% # 8
\label{eq:mvu}
\end{equation}
Combining with Eq.~\ref{eq:thinlens} and rearranging gives
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:m-rel1}
u-f = \frac f m
\end{equation}
Using that substitution and rearranging, Eqs.~\ref{eq:un:os} and \ref{eq:uf:os} can be expressed in terms of magnification as
\begin{equation}
u_\mathrm{n}=\frac u{1+\frac{NC}{fm}}
% # 9
\label{eq:un2}
\end{equation}
and
\begin{equation}
u_\mathrm{f}=\frac u{1-\frac{NC}{fm}}
% # 10
\label{eq:uf2}
\end{equation}
\subsection{Hyperfocal Distance}
Setting the far limit of DoF in Eq.~\ref{eq:uf:os} to infinity and solving for object distance gives
\begin{equation}
u_\mathrm{h} = \frac{f^2}{N\!c}+f
\label{eq:uhx}
% #11
\end{equation}
The distance $u_\mathrm{h}$ is called the \emph{hyperfocal distance}. At the hyperfocal distance, a difference of
one focal length is insignificant, so Eq.~\ref{eq:uhx} often is given simply as
\begin{equation}
u_\mathrm{h} \approx \frac{f^2}{N\!c}
\label{eq:uhapprox}
% #12
\end{equation}
When the object distance is the hyperfocal distance, the near limit of DoF, from Eq.~\ref{eq:un:os}, is
\begin{equation}
u_\mathrm{n} = \frac{\frac{f^2}{N\!c}+f}2 = \frac{u_\mathrm{h}}2
\end{equation}
so the depth of field extends from half the hyperfocal distance to infinity. From Eq.~\ref{eq:uhx} and the relationship (see Eq.~\ref{eq:m-rel1})
\begin{equation}
m = \frac f{u-f}\quad,
\label{eq:m-rel2}
\end{equation}
the magnification at $u_\mathrm{h}$ is
\begin{equation}
m_\mathrm{h} = \frac{N\!c}f\quad.
\end{equation}
If the near limit $u_\mathrm{n}$ of DoF is fixed, set focus to
\begin{equation}
u = 2 u_\mathrm{n}\quad ,
\label{eq:unearfix}
% #15
\end{equation}
and the $f$-number to
\begin{equation}
N\approx \frac{f^2}{2cu_\mathrm{n}}\quad .
\label{eq:unearfix}
% #16
\end{equation}
\subsection{Front and Rear Depth of Field}
The DoF in front of the focused object is
\begin{equation}
u-u_\mathrm{n} = \frac{N\!cu(u-f)}{f^2 +N\!c(u-f)}
\label{eq:17}
% #17
\end{equation}
The DoF beyond the focused object is
\begin{equation}
u_\mathrm{f} - u = \frac{N\!cu(u-f)}{f^2 - N\!c(u-f)}
\end{equation}
The front and rear DoF can be expressed in terms of the magnification by making the substitution Eq.~\ref{eq:m-rel1}
%% u−f&f m %%% state explicitely???
into the equations for front and rear DoF and rearranging, the near DoF is
\begin{equation}
u-u_\mathrm{n} = \frac{N\!c(1+m)}{m^2\left(1+\frac{N\!c}{fm}\right)}
\label{eq:19}
% #19
\end{equation}
and the far DoF is
\begin{equation}
u_\mathrm{f} - u = \frac{N\!c(1+m)}{m^2\left(1-\frac{N\!c}{fm}\right)}
\label{eq:20}
% #20
\end{equation}
The front:rear DoF ratio is
\begin{equation}
\frac{u-u_\mathrm{n}}{u_\mathrm{f}-u}=\frac{f^2-N\!c(u-f)}{f^2+N\!c(u-f)} = \frac{fm-N\!c}{fm+N\!c}
\label{eq:frrat}
% #21
\end{equation}
It often is stated that approximately 1⁄3 of the DoF is in front of the point of focus, and 2⁄3 of
the DoF is behind it. However, this is true only at one object distance:
\begin{equation}
u=\frac{f^2}{3N\!c} + f
\end{equation}
or slightly greater than 1⁄3 the hyperfocal distance. The front:rear DoF ratio is zero at the hyperfocal distance and beyond (the rear DoF is infinite); at high magnification, front and rear DoF are nearly equal.
\subsection{Total Depth of Field}
The total depth of field between the near and far limits is
%% (21)
\begin{eqnarray}
u_\mathrm{f}-u_\mathrm{n} &=& \frac{uf^2 \left[f^2 +N\!c(u- f)- f^2 +N\!c(u-f)\right]}{\left[f^2 -N\!c(u-f)\right]\left[f^2 +N\!c(u-f)\right]}\nonumber\\
& =&
\frac{ 2uN\!cf^2 (u- f)}{f^4 -N^2c^2(u-f)^2}
% #22
\label{eq:uf-n1}
\end{eqnarray}
Eliminating the terms in $u$ and $u - f$ by noting that
\begin{equation}
u = \frac{m+1}m f\quad ,
\end{equation}
%% m
and
\begin{equation}
u-f = \frac f m\quad,
\end{equation}
total depth of field in terms of magnification is
\begin{eqnarray}
u_\mathrm{f}-u_\mathrm{n} &=& \frac{2f\left(\frac{m+1}m\right)N\!cf^2\left(\frac f m\right)}{f^4 -N^2c^2\left(\frac f m\right)^2} \nonumber\\
&=& \frac{2f\left(\frac{m+1}m\right)}{\frac{fm}{N\!c}-\frac{N\!c}{fm}}
% #23
\label{eq:uf-n2}
\end{eqnarray}
At the hyperfocal distance, the two terms in the denominator are equal, and the DoF is infinite, although only objects at or beyond the near limit of DoF are rendered acceptably sharp. At distances beyond the hyperfocal distance, the calculated DoF is negative, but this has no physical significance. When the DoF is infinite, the only quantity of interest would seem to be the near limit of DoF, which, as can be seen from Eq.~\ref{eq:un2}, is closer with a lens of shorter focal length.
Multiplying the numerator and denominator of Eq.~\ref{eq:uf-n2} by $\frac{N\!cm}f$
gives
\begin{equation}
u_\mathrm{f}-u_\mathrm{n} = \frac{2N\!c(m+1)}{m^2-\left(\frac{N\!c}f\right)^2}
% #24
\label{eq:uf-n3}
\end{equation}
It can be seen from Eq.~\ref{eq:uf-n3} that a shorter focal length
gives a greater DoF. When $u \ll u_\mathrm{h}$, the second term in the denominator is small compared with the first, so that
\begin{equation}
u_\mathrm{f}-u_\mathrm{n} \approx 2N\!c\frac{m+1}{m^2}
% #25
\label{eq:uf-n4}
\end{equation}
and the DoF is independent of focal length.
Note that for constant DoF in Eq.~\ref{eq:uf-n4}, there is a reciprocal relationship between $N$ and
$c$: using a greater $f$-number is equivalent to specifying a smaller circle of confusion, and vice versa. This can be useful when using lens DoF scales that assume a final-image enlargement different from that actually intended. For example, if the lens DoF scales assume a 5× enlargement, and the image actually requires 7× enlargement, using an $f$-number one step greater (e.\,g., \f8 rather than \f{5.6}) will effectively reduce the CoC by a factor of $\sqrt 2$ , sufficient to compensate for the greater enlargement.
\subsection{Focus and Minimum $f$-Number for Given Depth of Field}
If the depth of field is to extend to infinity, the minimum $f$-number
is obtained by setting the focus to the hyperfocal distance. Many
images, however, do not require that the DoF extend to infinity. To
have the DoF between two arbitrary distances $u_\mathrm{n}$ and $u_\mathrm{f}$, Eqs.~(\ref{eq:un:os})
and~(\ref{eq:uf:os}) can be solved for $N$, combined, and solved for the object
distance $u$ to give
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:u}
u = \frac{2u_\mathrm{f}u_\mathrm{n}}{u_\mathrm{f}+u_\mathrm{n}}
% #26
\end{equation}
the \emph{harmonic mean} of the near and far distances. Note that the distance is independent of $N$: if the $f$-number is increased to decrease the effective CoC, there is no need to refocus.
The required $f$-number is obtained by solving Eqs.~(\ref{eq:un:os})
and~(\ref{eq:uf:os}) for
$u$, combining, and solving for $N$, giving
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:N}
N = \frac{f^2}c\frac{u_\mathrm{f} - u_\mathrm{n}}{u_\mathrm{f}(u_\mathrm{n}-f)+u_\mathrm{n}(u_\mathrm{f}-f)}
\end{equation}
If the near and far limits of DoF are large in comparison with the lens focal length,
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:Napprox}
N\approx \frac{f^2}c\frac{u_\mathrm{f} - u_\mathrm{n}}{2u_\mathrm{f}u_\mathrm{n}}
% #28
\end{equation}
If the focus is set using Eq.~(\ref{eq:u}), the DoF in front of the
focus point is
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:DOFf}
u-u_\mathrm{n}=\frac{2u_\mathrm{n}u_\mathrm{f}-u_\mathrm{n}u_\mathrm{f}-u_\mathrm{n}^2}{u_\mathrm{n} + u_\mathrm{f}} = \frac{u_\mathrm{n}(u_\mathrm{f} - u_\mathrm{n})}{u_\mathrm{n} + u_\mathrm{f}}
\end{equation}
and the DoF beyond the focus point is
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:DOFb}
u_\mathrm{f} - u = \frac{u_\mathrm{f}^2 +u_\mathrm{n}u_\mathrm{f}-2u_\mathrm{n}u_\mathrm{f}}{u_\mathrm{n} + u_\mathrm{f}} = \frac{u_\mathrm{f}(u_\mathrm{f} - u_\mathrm{n})}{u_\mathrm{n} + u_\mathrm{f}}
\end{equation}
The front:rear DoF ratio then is
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:frrat}
\frac{u - u_\mathrm{n}}{u_\mathrm{f} - u} = \frac{u_\mathrm{n}}{u_\mathrm{f}}
% #29
\end{equation}
Except when the near and far limits of DoF coincide, the focus point always is closer to the
near limit. The near-to-total ratio is 1⁄3 only when $u_\mathrm{f} = 2u_\mathrm{n}$.
\subsection{Image-Side Relationships}
Most discussions of depth of field concentrate on the object side of the lens; in practice, however, camera settings usually are determined using image distances, whether directly in the case of a view camera, or by using distance and DoF scales on hand-camera lenses. With a view camera, the image distances are obtained by focusing on objects at the desired near and far limits of DoF, and noting the lens extension in each case. The image distances $v_\mathrm{n}$ and $v_\mathrm{f}$ correspond to object distances $u_\mathrm{n}$ and $u_\mathrm{f}$; the difference $v_\mathrm{n}-v_\mathrm{f}$ between the near and far image distances is the \emph{focus spread} $\Dv$.
Combining Eqs.~(\ref{eq:vni}) and~(\ref{eq:vfi}) gives the image distance $v$ that will set
the DoF between object distances $u_\mathrm{n}$ and $u_\mathrm{f}$:
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:v}
v = \frac{2v_\mathrm{n}v_\mathrm{f}}{v_\mathrm{n}+v_\mathrm{f}}
% #30
\end{equation}
the harmonic mean of the near and far image distances. The harmonic mean always is less than the arithmetic mean, but when the focus spread is small, the harmonic mean and arithmetic mean are nearly equal, so that
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:vapprox1}
v\approx\frac{v_\mathrm{n}+v_\mathrm{f}}2
% #31
\end{equation}
or
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:vapprox2}
v \approx v_\mathrm{f} + \frac \Dv 2
% #32
\end{equation}
Again combining Eqs.~(\ref{eq:vni}) and~(\ref{eq:vfi}), the far:near distribution of the focus spread is
\begin{equation}
\frac{v-v_\mathrm{f}}{v_\mathrm{n}-v} = \frac{v_\mathrm{f}}{v_\mathrm{n}}\quad.
\label{eq:33}
% #33
\end{equation}
Using Eq.~(\ref{eq:thinlens}) to substitute for $v_\mathrm{n}$ and $v_\mathrm{f}$, and then rearranging, the focus spread in terms the object distances is
\begin{equation}
v_\mathrm{n}-v_\mathrm{f} = \frac{(u_\mathrm{f}-u_\mathrm{n})f^2}{(u_\mathrm{f}-f)(u_\mathrm{n}-f)}
\end{equation}
or
\begin{equation}
\Dv \approx (u_\mathrm{f} - u_\mathrm{n})m_\mathrm{n}m_\mathrm{f} \quad.
\label{eq:34}
% #34
\end{equation}
For different camera formats, if the perspective and framing are held constant by suitable choice of lenses, the magnifications of the near and far objects are proportional to the format size. Consequently, the focus spread is proportional to the square of the format size, so that a focus spread of 0.5\,mm in 35\,mm format corresponds to focus spreads of 8\,mm in 4$\times$5 and 32\,mm in 8$\times$10.
Except when the focus spread is zero, the exact focus distance v always will be slightly closer to the far image distance. In most cases, the approximate focus setting is close to the exact value; the difference is given by
\begin{equation}
v_\mathrm{ap} - v = \frac{v_\mathrm{n}+v_\mathrm{f}}2 - \frac{2v_\mathrm{n}v_\mathrm{f}}{v_\mathrm{n} + v_\mathrm{f}} = \frac{v_\mathrm{n}^2+2v_\mathrm{n}v_\mathrm{f}+v_\mathrm{f}^2-4v_\mathrm{n}v_\mathrm{f}}{2(v_\mathrm{n}+v_\mathrm{f})} = \frac{(v_\mathrm{n} - v_\mathrm{f})^2}{2(v_\mathrm{n}+v_\mathrm{f})}
\label{eq:35}
% #35
\end{equation}
The difference between the approximate and exact values is proportional to the square of the focus spread, and for a given focus spread, is greatest at distant focus. In all cases,
\begin{equation}
v_\mathrm{ap} - v \leq \frac{(v_\mathrm{n} - v_\mathrm{f})^2}{4f}
\end{equation}
This difference always is a positive quantity, so that the image distance determined with the approximate formula always will be slightly greater than that determined with the exact formula, and accordingly, focus will be slightly closer than optimum. Evens (2003) describes this relationship in a slightly different but equivalent form.
With focus set by Eq.~(\ref{eq:v}), the required $f$-number is
\begin{equation}
N = \frac f c\frac{v_\mathrm{n}-v_\mathrm{f}}{v_\mathrm{n}+v_\mathrm{f}}
\label{eq:36}
% #36
\end{equation}
When the focus spread is small, $v_\mathrm{n} + v_\mathrm{f} \approx 2v$, and
\begin{equation}
N \approx \frac f v \frac\Dv{2c}
\label{eq:37}
% #37
\end{equation}
It sometimes is more convenient to express Eq.~(\ref{eq:37}) in terms of the magnification; substituting the relation
\begin{equation}
v=(1+m)f
\end{equation}
into Eq.~(\ref{eq:37}), giving
\begin{equation}
N\approx\frac1{1+m}\frac\Dv{2c}
\label{eq:38}
% #38
\end{equation}
Except at close working distances, $m$ is small, and Eq.~(\ref{eq:38}) often can be simplified to
\begin{equation}
N\approx\frac\Dv{2c}
\label{eq:39}
% #39
\end{equation}
When this is done, the ratio of approximate to exact $f$-number is
\begin{equation}
\frac{N_\mathrm{ap}}N = \frac{v_\mathrm{n}-v_\mathrm{f}}{2c}\frac c f\frac{v_\mathrm{n}+v_\mathrm{f}}{v_\mathrm{n}-v_\mathrm{f}} = \frac{v_\mathrm{n}+v_\mathrm{f}}{2f}\approx\frac v f = 1+m
\label{eq:40}
%. #40
\end{equation}
The error increases with image distance, or equivalently, with magnification. Eq.~(\ref{eq:39}) gives a greater $f$-number than actually required, so to use it is to err on the conservative side. If this error is unacceptable, Eq.~(\ref{eq:37}) or~(\ref{eq:38})can be used for closeup work.
Equations~(\ref{eq:vapprox2}) and~(\ref{eq:39}) are well known to many view camera users; the rear standard is set to a position halfway between the points of focus for the near and far objects, and the lens $f$-number is calculated from the focus spread. Although Eqs.~(\ref{eq:v}) and~(\ref{eq:36}) are simple enough, especially if the calculations are done with a programmable calculator or handheld computer, they require the absolute image distances $v_\mathrm{n}$ and $v_\mathrm{f}$, which often are not easy to determine, especially if camera movements are employed. Eqs.~(\ref{eq:vapprox2}) and~(\ref{eq:39}) require only the difference between the near and far image distances, which usually is easily measured; consequently, these equations are the ones most commonly used on hand-camera lens DoF scales and on DoF calculators for view cameras. Eqs.~(\ref{eq:37}) and~(\ref{eq:38}) require the absolute image distance, but a reasonable estimate of image distance or of the magnification often will suffice. It can be shown that Eqs.~(\ref{eq:vapprox2}) and~(\ref{eq:39}) are valid even if swings and tilts are employed.
If the camera does not include a DoF calculator, measurement of focus spread is much easier if the bed or focusing rail includes a scale, and measurements can be more precise if the focusing knob includes an additional scale. See Hayashi for a description of adding a Sinar-type DoF scale to the focusing knob, and Evens (2003) for a discussion of adding scales to both the rail and the knob.
On a hand camera, the lens DoF scales usually implement these same formulae. With autofocus lenses, however, there may be no easy means of controlling DoF; the distance-scale markings usually are widely spaced, and the DoF scales, if even provided, usually are so small that using them to determine focus and $f$-number is all but impossible. Although the benefits of autofocus are undeniable, an unfortunate consequence is that even the most advanced autofocus 35\,mm cameras cannot perform a task that was easily accomplished with the most basic manual-focus cameras.\footnote{When Canon introduced autofocus cameras, many of the bodies included a feature, Depth-of-Field Automatic Exposure, that functioned in much the same manner as DoF scales on manual-focus lenses. Unfortunately, this feature was eliminated from new models introduced since early 2004.}
If lens DoF scales are not available, and it is impractical to measure image distances, Eqs.~(\ref{eq:u}) and~(\ref{eq:Napprox}) can be used if there is a convenient way to measure object distances. With a suitable external rangefinder, these formulae could provide a means of controlling DoF with autofocus lenses.
Substituting Eq.~(\ref{eq:thinlens}) into Eq.~(\ref{eq:uhx}) and rearranging gives the image distance $v_\mathrm{h}$ corresponding to the hyperfocal distance $u_\mathrm{h}$:
\begin{equation}
v_\mathrm{h} = f + N\!c
% # (41)
\label{eq:vh}
\end{equation}
%%
This image distance will put the DoF between half the hyperfocal distance and infinity, and
can be useful when designing a fixed-focus camera.
\subsection{Depth of Field and Background Blur vs. Focal Length}
Recall that the CoC is the diameter of the blur spot at the near and
far limits of DoF; the diameter of the blur spot for a point on a
defocused object at an arbitrary distance is obtained by solving
Eqs.~\ref{eq:un:os} and \ref{eq:uf:os} %Eqs. (6) and (7)
for $c$, and replacing the near and far distances by $u_\mathrm{d}$, leading to
\begin{equation}
k = \frac1N \frac{f^2}{u-f} \frac{|u_\mathrm{d} - u|}{u_\mathrm{d}} = \frac{fm}N \frac{|u_\mathrm{d} - u|}{u_\mathrm{d}}
% # 42
\label{eq:k1}
\end{equation}
Equivalently, for a point at a distance $x_\mathrm{d}$ from the plane of focus,
\begin{equation}
k = \frac{fm}N \frac{x_\mathrm{d}}{u\pm x_\mathrm{d}}
% # 43
\label{eq:k2}
\end{equation}
The sign in the denominator is negative when the defocused object is in front of the focused object.
For constant magnification of the focused object, the diameter of the blur spot increases with lens focal length; however, the magnification of the defocused object also increases with focal length. The most appropriate measure of “background blur” may be the diameter of the blur spot relative to the image size of the defocused object. Image size is proportional to the magnification; the magnification $m_\mathrm{d}$ of an object at a distance xd from the plane of focus is
\begin{equation}
m_\mathrm{d} = \frac v {u_\mathrm{d}} = \frac{(m+1)f}{u_\mathrm{d}}
% # (44)
\label{eq:md}
\end{equation}
%%
If the “relative blur” $k_\mathrm{r}$ is the ratio of blur spot diameter to magnification, then
\begin{equation}
\frac{k}{m_\mathrm{d}} = \frac m{m+1}\frac{|x_\mathrm{d}|}N
% #45
\label{eq:km}
\end{equation}
It often is claimed that a long-focus lens gives less DoF and more background blur than a short-focus lens. However, Eq. (25) shows that, when the object distance is small in comparison with the hyperfocal distance, DoF is independent of focal length, and Eq. (45) shows that the “relative blur” is independent of focal length at all distances. However, if the defocused object is sufficiently distant, it may appear so small with a short-focus lens that the blurring is not obvious; in such a case, the long-focus lens may give subjectively greater background blur. The perspective with a long-focus lens will, of course, be different from the perspective with a short-focus lens.
Van Walree (2002) gives an excellent description and illustration of this behavior in slightly different terms.
\section{Different Circles of Confusion for Near and Far Limits of Depth of Field}
The conventional approach to DoF is based on distinguishing a point from a blur spot in the image, and uses equal CoCs for the near and far limits. Although the CoC usually is quite small in comparison with the imaged size of near objects, it can be quite large in comparison with the imaged size of distant objects, in some cases so much so that a distant object becomes unrecognizable. Although many undoubtedly would maintain that, under normal viewing conditions, a blur spot either is distinguishable from a point or it is not, others (Merklinger 1992; Englander 1994) maintain that sharpness perception is context dependent, and that greater sharpness is required in distant objects to give an acceptably sharp image. This requirement can be addressed by using a smaller CoC for the far limit of DoF; in some respects, this approach is similar to the concept of “relative blur.”
\subsection{Image-Side Relationships}
Eqs. (1) and (2) assumed identical CoCs for the near and far limits of DoF; using different near and far values $c_\mathrm{n}$ and $c_\mathrm{f}$, we have
\begin{equation}
\frac{v_\mathrm{n} - v}{v_\mathrm{n}} = \frac{c_\mathrm{n}}d\hphantom{\quad.}
\label{eq:46}
% #46
\end{equation}
and
\begin{equation}
\frac{v - v_\mathrm{f}}{v_\mathrm{f}} = \frac{c_\mathrm{f}}d \quad .
\label{eq:47}
% #47
\end{equation}
Replacing $d$ with the focal length and $f$-number gives
\begin{equation}
\frac{v_\mathrm{n} - v}{v_\mathrm{n}} = \frac{N\!c_\mathrm{n}}f\hphantom{\quad.}
\label{eq:48}
% #48
\end{equation}
and
\begin{equation}
\frac{v - v_\mathrm{f}}{v_\mathrm{f}} = \frac{N\!c_\mathrm{f}}f \quad .
\label{eq:49}
% #49
\end{equation}
Combining Eqs.~(\ref{eq:48}) and~(\ref{eq:49}) and solving for $v$ gives
\begin{equation}
v = \frac{(c_\mathrm{n} + c_\mathrm{f}) v_\mathrm{n} v_\mathrm{f}}{c_\mathrm{n}v_\mathrm{v} + c_\mathrm{f}v_\mathrm{f}}
\label{eq:50}
% #50
\end{equation}
Again combining Eqs.~(\ref{eq:48}) and~(\ref{eq:49}), the far:near distribution of the focus spread is
\begin{equation}
\frac{v - v_\mathrm{f}}{v_\mathrm{n} - v} = \frac{c_\mathrm{f}v_\mathrm{f}}{c_\mathrm{n}v_\mathrm{n}}
\label{eq:51}
% #51
\end{equation}
Unless the focus spread is large, we usually can take $v_\mathrm{f} \approx v_\mathrm{n}$ on the right-hand side of
Eq.~(\ref{eq:51}), so that
\begin{equation}
\frac{v - v_\mathrm{f}}{v_\mathrm{n} - v} \approx \frac{c_\mathrm{f}}{c_\mathrm{n}}
\label{eq:52}
% #52
\end{equation}
Rearranging and solving for $v$ gives
\begin{equation}
v\approx{c_\mathrm{f}v_\mathrm{n}+c_\mathrm{n}v_\mathrm{f}}{c_\mathrm{n}+c_\mathrm{f}}
\label{eq:53}
% #53
\end{equation}
or
\begin{equation}
v\approx v_\mathrm{f}+\frac{c_\mathrm{f}}{c_\mathrm{n}+c_\mathrm{f}}\Dv
\label{eq:54}
% #54
\end{equation}
where $Δv$ is the focus spread $v_\mathrm{n} - v_\mathrm{f}$. Combining Eqs.~(\ref{eq:48}) and~(\ref{eq:49}) and solving for $N$ gives
\begin{equation}
N=\frac{(v_\mathrm{n}-v_\mathrm{f})f}{c_\mathrm{n}v_\mathrm{n}+c_\mathrm{f}v_\mathrm{f}}
\label{eq:55}
% #55
\end{equation}
To within sufficient accuracy for determining $N$, we usually can take $v_\mathrm{n} \approx v_\mathrm{f} \approx v$ in the denominator, so that
\begin{equation}
N\approx\frac f v \frac{v_\mathrm{n}-v_\mathrm{f}}{c_\mathrm{n}+c_\mathrm{f}}
\label{eq:56}
% #56
\end{equation}
Except for closeup work, it usually is acceptable to take $v \approx f$, so that Eq.~(\ref{eq:56}) further simplifies to
\begin{equation}
N\approx\frac \Dv{c_\mathrm{n}+c_\mathrm{f}}
\label{eq:57}
% #57
\end{equation}
Assuming that $c_\mathrm{f} < c_\mathrm{n}$, Eq.~(\ref{eq:54}) gives an image distance closer to the far image distance than does Eq.~(\ref{eq:vapprox2}), and Eq.~(\ref{eq:57}) gives a greater $f$-number than does Eq.~(\ref{eq:39}).
Englander (1994) suggested, in effect, that when the DoF extends to infinity, $c_\mathrm{f}$ should be $1⁄2 c_\mathrm{n}$. From Eq.~(\ref{eq:54}), focus then would be set to
\begin{equation}
v = v_f + \frac 1 3 \Dv\quad,
\label{eq:57+}
\end{equation}
and from Eq. (57), the $f$-number would be
\begin{equation}
N = \frac\Dv{1.5c\mathrm{n}}\quad,
\label{eq:57++}
\end{equation}
or approximately 0.83 step greater than would result from equal near
and far CoCs. Merklinger (1992) desired greater sharpness in distant
objects, and suggested\footnote{Merklinger actually suggested 1⁄30\,mm
for the near-limit CoC; 0.025\,mm is used here for consistency with
the other examples.} a far-limit CoC of 1⁄150\,mm for 35\,mm film;
using 0.025\,mm for the near-limit CoC, $c_\mathrm{f} \approx 1⁄4 c_\mathrm{n}$. From
Eq.~(\ref{eq:54}), focus would be set to
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:57+++}
v=v_\mathrm{f}+\frac15\Dv\quad,
\end{equation}
and from Eq.~(\ref{eq:57}), the $f$-number would be
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:57++++}
N=\frac \Dv{1.25c_\mathrm{n}}\quad ,
\end{equation}
or approximately 1\,1⁄3 steps greater than would result from equal near and far CoCs. If the CoC were to be reduced by a factor of four simply by stopping down without refocusing, the $f$-number would need to increase by a factor of four, or four steps. Of course, the latter approach would decrease the CoC for both near and far objects; in some situations, this might be of value, in others it might not.
\subsection{Object-Side Relationships}
\label{sec:object-side-relat}
The object-side equations for distance and $f$-number are obtained by
substituting the conjugate relationship
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:57+++++}
v=\frac{uf}{u-f}
\end{equation}
into Eqs. (50) and (55), giving
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:58}
u = \frac{(c_\mathrm{n}+c_\mathrm{f})u_\mathrm{n}u_\mathrm{f}}{c_\mathrm{n}u_\mathrm{n}+c_\mathrm{f}u_\mathrm{f}}
% #58
\end{equation}
and
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:59}
N=\frac{(u_\mathrm{f}-u_\mathrm{n})f^2}{c_\mathrm{n}u_\mathrm{n}(u_\mathrm{f}-f)+c_\mathrm{f}u_\mathrm{f}(u_\mathrm{n}-f)}
% #59
\end{equation}
If the near and far distances are large in comparison with the lens
focal length,
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:1}
N\approx\frac{(u_\mathrm{f}-u_\mathrm{n})f^2}{(c_\mathrm{n}+c_\mathrm{f})u_\mathrm{n}u_\mathrm{f}}
\end{equation}
The near and far limits of DoF are obtained by substituting into
Eqs.~(\ref{eq:48}) and~(\ref{eq:49}), giving
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:61}
u_\mathrm{n}=\frac{uf^2}{f^2+N\!c_\mathrm{n}(u-f)}\hphantom{\quad.}
% #61
\end{equation}
and
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:62}
u_\mathrm{f}=\frac{uf^2}{f^2-N\!c_\mathrm{f}(u-f)}\quad.
% #62
\end{equation}
Setting the far limit of DoF to infinity and solving for object
distance gives
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:uh}
u_\mathrm{h}=\frac{f^2}{N\!c_\mathrm{f}}+f
% #63
\end{equation}
the hyperfocal distance for different near- and far-limit CoCs. When
the object distance is the hyperfocal distance, the near limit of DoF,
from Eq.~(\ref{eq:61}), is
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:un}
u_\mathrm{n} = \frac{c_\mathrm{f}}{c_\mathrm{n}+c_\mathrm{f}}\left(\frac{f^2}{N\!c_\mathrm{f}}+f\right)
% #64
\end{equation}
\section{The Object Field Method}
\label{sec:object-field-method}
Sometimes the recognizability of objects may be more important than a specified sharpness in the image; this long has been the case in aerial surveillance photography; see Williams (1990) for a discussion of “ground resolution.” The objects of interest in aerial surveillance essentially are at infinity; Merklinger’s Object Field Method applied the same criterion to objects throughout the image.
Generally, an object is recognizable if key features are reproduced at a size equal to or larger than the size of the blur spot. The expressions on the object side to ensure this reproduction are straightforward; when the same resolution criteria apply at near and far distances, the focus distance is
\begin{equation}
u=\frac{u_\mathrm{n}+u_\mathrm{f}}2
\label{eq:65}
% #65
\end{equation}
and the $f$-number is
\begin{equation}
N = \frac{u_\mathrm{f} - u_\mathrm{n}}{u_\mathrm{n}+u_\mathrm{f}}\frac f S
\label{eq:66}
% #66
\end{equation}
where $S$ is the size of the smallest feature to be resolved.
Eqs.~(\ref{eq:65}) and~(\ref{eq:66}) are simple to apply when an easy means of determining object
distance is available, such as with manual-focus hand-camera lenses that have readable distance scales, or perhaps with a laser rangefinder. However, the expressions on the image side are more complex. Merklinger’s resolution criteria derive strictly from consideration of object features, but the effect essentially is equivalent to using different CoCs for near and far objects. This again is similar to the concept of “relative blur.” When the same resolution criteria apply at near and far distances, the near and far CoCs are proportional to their relative magnifications:
\begin{equation}
\frac{c_\mathrm{f}}{c_\mathrm{n}}=\frac{m_\mathrm{f}}{m_\mathrm{n}}
\label{eq:67}
% #67
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
m_\mathrm{x} = \frac v {u_\mathrm{x}} = \frac v {v_\mathrm{x}} \frac{v_\mathrm{x} - f}f
\label{eq:67+}
\end{equation}
for the near and far magnifications gives
\begin{equation}
\frac{c_\mathrm{f}}{c_\mathrm{n}} = \frac{v_\mathrm{n}}{v_\mathrm{n}} \frac{v_\mathrm{f} - f}{v_\mathrm{n} - f}
\label{eq:68}
% #68
\end{equation}
The expressions for focus distance and $f$-number do not lend
themselves to easily used simplifications, except when the far limit
of DoF extends to infinity: then $v_\mathrm{f} = f$, and $c_\mathrm{f}
= 0$. From Eq.~(\ref{eq:54}), the focus is set to infinity; from
Eq.~\ref{eq:un:os}, %Eq. (6), %
the near limit of DoF then is
\begin{equation}
u_\mathrm{n} = \frac{f^2}{N\!c_\mathrm{n}}\quad,
\label{eq:69}
% #69
\end{equation}
essentially the hyperfocal distance. From Eq.~(\ref{eq:57}), the $f$-number is
\begin{equation}
N \approx \frac{v_\mathrm{n} - f}{c_\mathrm{n}}
\label{eq:70}
% #70
\end{equation}
or two steps greater than that resulting from the same near distance using equal near and far CoCs. Of course, with the Object Field Method, the absolute value of the CoC derives strictly from object features, so it may not be the same as the CoC determined with the conventional approach to DoF.
Alternatively, the $f$-number can be determined from the near object distance by rearranging Eq.~(\ref{eq:69}):
\begin{equation}
N = \frac{f^2}{c_\mathrm{n}u_\mathrm{n}}\quad,
\label{eq:71}
% #71
\end{equation}
Eq.~(\ref{eq:71}) also indicates that the required $f$-number is twice that of
the conventional method: the near limit of DoF with the conventional
method is half the hyperfocal distance, and halving the distance in
Eq.~(\ref{eq:71}) % (71)
requires doubling the $f$-number.
With a hand camera, it usually is easier to determine the $f$-number using Eq.~(\ref{eq:71}) rather than Eq.~(\ref{eq:70}), although with most autofocus lenses, the distance scale may be essentially unreadable unless the near distance is quite close.
For a given $f$-number, the Object Field Method gives greater sharpness to distant objects at the expense of slightly less sharpness in near objects; for a given near-limit sharpness, the greater sharpness of distant objects comes at the expense of a greater $f$-number than required with equal near and far CoCs. Although the cost of the greater distant sharpness is substantial, it nonetheless is considerably less than the cost of achieving the same sharpness simply by increasing the $f$-number without refocusing. In practice, the Object Field Method often is easiest to use with infinity focus, especially with a hand camera, for which a slightly closer focus can be difficult to set accurately.
When recognizability of objects is the most important consideration, as usually is the case in surveillance photography, the Object Field Method probably is better than the conventional method, especially if parts of the image are to be examined at high magnification to resolve small details. How much this holds true in general pictorial photography is a matter of personal taste.
\subsection{Depth of Field and Camera Format}
For two different camera formats 1 and 2, with each camera at the same object distance, and the lens focal lengths chosen to give same image framing, the $f$-numbers $N_1 $ and $N_2$ required to give the same total depth of field are, from Eq. (25),
\begin{equation}
\frac{N_2}{N_1}\approx\frac{c_1}{c_2}\frac{m_1+1}{m_2+1}\left(\frac{m_2}{m_1}\right)^2
\label{eq:72}
% #72
\end{equation}
When the object distance is large in comparison with the lens focal length, magnification is small, and
\begin{equation}
\frac{m_1+1}{m_2+1} \approx 1\quad,
\end{equation}
so that
\begin{equation}
\frac{N_2}{N_1}\approx\frac{c_1}{c_2}\left(\frac{m_2}{m_1}\right)^2\quad.
\label{eq:73}
% #73
\end{equation}
Image magnification $m$ corresponds to a characteristic dimension $l$ of the camera format, so that
\begin{equation}
\frac{m_1}{m_2} = \frac{l_1}{l_2}
\label{eq:74}
% #74
\end{equation}
If the final images are to be the same size, the acceptable circles of confusion $c_1$ and $c_2$ are in proportion to the format size:
%%
%% Page 19
\begin{equation}
\frac{c_1}{c_2} = \frac{l_1}{l_2}
\label{eq:75}
% #75
\end{equation}
and
\begin{equation}
\frac{N_2}{N_1}\approx \frac{l_1}{l_2} \frac{l_2^2}{l_1^2} = \frac{l_2}{l_1}\quad.
\label{eq:73}
% #73
\end{equation}
If the characteristic dimension is the short dimension of the format, the ratio of the 4×5 (96\,mm × 120\,mm) and 35\,mm (24\,mm × 36\,mm) formats is 4. If a 35\,mm camera using a 75\,mm lens required \f8 at 1/250 second, a 4×5 camera using a 300\,mm lens and viewing the same object from the same camera position would require \f{32} at 1/15 second for the same depth of field. For a stationary subject, such as architecture, either combination probably would be fine, but for a moving subject, such as a field of wildflowers on a windy day, the 1/15\,sec. shutter speed might not be sufficient to prevent motion blur. Of course, just the opposite problem can arise when a shallow DoF is desired with a small-format digital sensor—the lens may not allow a sufficiently small $f$-number to give the desired effect.
For a given $f$-number, the ratio of the depths of field of the two camera formats is given by
\begin{equation}
\frac{\mathrm{DoF}_1}{\mathrm{DoF}_2} \approx \frac{l_1}{l_2}
\label{eq:77}
% #77
\end{equation}
If a 35\,mm camera using a 75\,mm lens and a 4×5 camera using a 300\,mm lens were set to the same $f$-number, the image from the 35\,mm camera would have 4 times the depth of field of the image from the 4×5.
The rule that “DoF is inversely proportional to format size” is useful for describing practical results obtained with different camera formats, although the approximations used to derive it are valid only for a limited range of object distances. There is no simple expression for the valid range of distances, but in many cases (allowing about a 20\,\% error), it is between about 3 times the focal length of the lens on the smaller format, and about 1⁄2 the hyperfocal distance of the lens on the larger format.
\subsection{Depth of Field for an Asymmetrical Lens}
Most treatments of depth of field assume a symmetrical lens for which the entrance and exit pupils are the same size, and for which the pupils coincide with the object and image principal planes. Although this assumption is reasonable for most large-format lenses of short and medium focal length, it may not be appropriate for telephoto designs. For most 35\,mm and medium-format single-lens reflex cameras, the only nearly symmetrical lenses are those with focal length approximately equal to the film diagonal; longer-focus lenses usually are telephoto designs, and shorter-focus lenses are retrofocus designs that allow the rear element to clear the reflex mirror.
%% Page 20
\begin{figure}[htbp] % figure placement: here, top, bottom, or page
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{dofd-figures/fig_dofd_2}
\caption{Asymmetrical Lens}
\label{fig:asymlens}
\end{figure}
%% Figure 2. Asymmetrical Lens
The \emph{entrance pupil} is the image of the aperture stop as seen from the object side of the lens; it is the center of perspective for the lens. The \emph{exit pupil} is the image of the aperture stop as seen from the image side of the lens; it is the center of projection onto the image plane. The entrance and exit pupils may be regarded as images of each other.
Consider the lens in Figure~\ref{fig:asymlens} whose object and image principal planes H and H$'$ are at distances $s_\mathrm{H}$ and $s'_\mathrm{H'}$ behind the object and image vertices, and whose entrance and exit pupils are at $s_\mathrm{ep}$ and $s'_\mathrm{ap}$ behind the same vertices (by convention, left-to-right distances are positive). The entrance pupil then is at a distance $x_\mathrm{ep}$ behind H and the exit pupil is at $x'_\mathrm{ap}$ behind H$'$.
\begin{figure}[htbp] % figure placement: here, top, bottom, or page
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{dofd-figures/fig_dofd_3}
\caption{Asymmetrical Lens—Entrance and Exit Pupils}
\label{fig:asympup}
\end{figure}
%% Figure 3. Asymmetrical Lens—Entrance and Exit Pupils
%%
%% Page 21
The entrance and exit pupil diameters are related by the pupillary magnification
\begin{equation}
p = \frac d D
\label{eq:p}
% #78
\end{equation}
%%
In Figure~\ref{fig:asympup}, at infinity focus, the extension to H$'$ of
the cone of light from the exit pupil has diameter $D$; from similar
triangles,
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:79}
\frac D f = \frac d{f-x_\mathrm{ap}'}=\frac{pD}{f-x_\mathrm{ap}'}
% #79
\end{equation}
and
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:80}
x_\mathrm{ap}'=f(1-p)
% #80
\end{equation}
The distances $x_\mathrm{ep}$ and $x'_\mathrm{ap}$ are conjugate, so they are related by the lateral magnification $m$. In
this case, the lateral magnification is the pupillary magnification
$p$, so that
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:xapp}
x'_\mathrm{ap} = p x_\mathrm{ep}
\end{equation}
and
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:xep}
x_\mathrm{ep} = f\left(\frac1p-1\right)
% #81
\end{equation}
\begin{figure}[htbp] % figure placement: here, top, bottom, or page
\centering
\includegraphics[width=\linewidth]{dofd-figures/fig_dofd_4}
\caption{DoF for Asymmetrical Lens}
\label{fig:DOFasymlens}
\end{figure}
%% Figure 4. DoF for Asymmetrical Lens
DoF is controlled by the diameter of the lens exit pupil. In Figure~\ref{fig:DOFasymlens}, the near and far limits of DoF are at object distances $u_\mathrm{n}$ and $u_\mathrm{f}$, corresponding to image distances $v_\mathrm{n}$ and $v_\mathrm{f}$; at the focused image distance $v$, they form circular images of diameter $c$, the acceptable circle of confusion. From similar triangles,
\begin{equation}
\frac c d = \frac{(v_\mathrm{n}-x'_\mathrm{ap}) - (v-x'_\mathrm{ap})}{v_\mathrm{n}-x'_\mathrm{ap}} =
\frac {v_\mathrm{n} - v}{v_\mathrm{n}-x'_\mathrm{ap}} =
\frac{(v-x'_\mathrm{ap}) - (v_\mathrm{f}-x'_\mathrm{ap})}{v_\mathrm{f}-x'_\mathrm{ap}} =
\frac {v - v_\mathrm{f}}{v_\mathrm{f}-x'_\mathrm{ap}}
\label{eq:82}
\end{equation}
%% Page 22
It usually is more convenient to work with the lens $f$-number than the exit pupil diameter;
the $f$-number is related to the lens focal length $f$ and the entrance pupil diameter $D$ by
\begin{equation}
N = \frac f D
\end{equation}
eliminating $D$ by means of Eq.~(\ref{eq:p}), the lens $f$-number then can be expressed in terms of the
exit pupil diameter as
\begin{equation}
N = \frac {pf} D
\end{equation}
Making the substitution
\begin{equation}
d = \frac {pf} N
\end{equation}
into Eq. (82) gives
\begin{equation}
\frac {N\!c}{pf} = \frac{v_\mathrm{n} - v}{v_n - x'_\mathrm{ap}}
= \frac {v - v_\mathrm{f}}{v_\mathrm{f}- x'_\mathrm{ap}}
\label{eq:83}
% #83
\end{equation}
\subsection{Image Space}
\label{sec:imspc}
Substituting Eq.~(\ref{eq:80}) into Eq.~(\ref{eq:83}) and rearranging, one arrives at several relations in image space. The image distances corresponding to the near and far limits of DoF are
\begin{equation}
v_\mathrm{n} = \frac{fv - N\!cf\left(\frac1p - 1\right)}{f - N\!c\left(\frac1p \right)}
\label{eq:84}
% #84
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
v_\mathrm{f} = \frac{fv + N\!cf\left(\frac1p - 1\right)}{f + N\!c\left(\frac1p \right)}
\label{eq:85}
% #85
\end{equation}
The required focus point and $f$-number to have the DoF extend from $u_\mathrm{n}$ to $u_\mathrm{f}$ are
\begin{equation}
v = \frac{2v_\mathrm{n}v_\mathrm{f} - (v_\mathrm{n} +v_\mathrm{f})f(1-p)}{v_\mathrm{n} +v_\mathrm{f}-2f(1-p)}
\label{eq:86}
% #86
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
N = \frac{pf}c \frac{v_\mathrm{n} - v_\mathrm{f}}{v_\mathrm{n} +v_\mathrm{f}-2f(1-p)}
\label{eq:87}
% #87
\end{equation}
If $v_\mathrm{n}$ or $v_\mathrm{f}$ in Eq. (83) is replaced by an arbitrary distance $v_\mathrm{d}$, corresponding to a defocused
point object at object distance $u_\mathrm{d}$, the diameter of the resulting blur spot is given by
\begin{equation}
k = \frac{pf}N \frac{|v_\mathrm{d} - v|}{v_\mathrm{d} + f(p-1)}
\label{eq:88}
% #88
\end{equation}
\subsection{Object Space}
\label{sec:objspc}
Rearranging Eq. (5) to
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:5v}
v = \frac{uf}{u-f}\quad,
\end{equation}
%
%% Page 23
substituting into Eqs. (84) through (88), and again rearranging, one
arrives at the corresponding relations in object space. The near and
far limits of DoF are
\begin{eqnarray}
u_\mathrm{n} & = & \frac{uf^2 - N\!cf\left(\frac1p-1\right)(u-f)}{f^2 + N\!c(u-f)}\label{eq:89}\\
u_\mathrm{f} & = & \frac{uf^2 + N\!cf\left(\frac1p-1\right)(u-f)}{f^2 - N\!c(u-f)}\label{eq:90}
\end{eqnarray}
When $u_\mathrm{f} = \infty$, the focus distance is the hyperfocal distance
$u_\mathrm{h}$, where
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:uh2}
u_\mathrm{h} = \frac{f^2}{N\!c} + f
\end{equation}
the same as for a symmetrical lens. Solving for the near limit of DoF gives
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:3un}
u_\mathrm{n} = \frac12 \left(\frac{f^2}{N\!c} + f - f\left(\frac1p-1\right)\right)\quad,
% #92
\end{equation}
or slightly less than half the hyperfocal distance.
The required focus distance and $f$-number to have the DoF extend from
$u_\mathrm{n}$ to $u_\mathrm{f}$ are
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:93}
u = \frac{2u_\mathrm{n}u_\mathrm{f} +
(u_\mathrm{n}+u_\mathrm{f})f\left(\frac1p-1\right)}{u_\mathrm{n}+u_\mathrm{f}+2f\left(\frac1p-1\right)}
% #93
\end{equation}
and
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:94}