| language | filename | contributors | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dart |
learndart.dart |
|
Dart is a single threaded, general purpose programming language. It borrows a lot from other mainstream languages. It supports Streams, Futures(known as Promises in JavaScript), Generics, First-class functions(closures) and static type checking. Dart can run in any platform such as Web, CLI, Desktop, Mobile and IoT devices.
Dart's most controversial feature is its Optional Typing Static Type safety and Sound Type checks.
import "dart:collection";
import "dart:math" as math;
/// Welcome to Learn Dart in 15 minutes. http://dart.dev/
/// This is an executable tutorial. You can run it with Dart or on
/// the Try Dart! site if you copy/paste it there. http://dartpad.dev/
/// You can also run Flutter in DartPad by click the `< > New Pad ` and choose Flutter
/// In Dart, Everything is an Object.
/// Every declaration of an object is an instance of Null and
/// Null is also an object.
/// 3 Types of comments in dart
// Single line comment
/**
* Multi-line comment
* Can comment several lines
*/
/// Code doc comment
/// It uses markdown syntax to generate code docs when making an API.
/// Code doc comment is the recommended choice when documenting your APIs, classes and methods.
/// 4 types of variable declaration.
/// Constants are variables that are immutable cannot be change or altered.
/// `const` in dart should practice SCREAMING_SNAKE_CASE name declaration.
const CONSTANT_VALUE = "I CANNOT CHANGE";
CONSTANT_VALUE = "DID I?"; //Error
/// Final is another variable declaration that cannot be change once it has been instantiated. Commonly used in classes and functions
/// `final` can be declared in pascalCase.
final finalValue = "value cannot be changed once instantiated";
finalValue = "Seems not"; //Error
/// `var` is another variable declaration that is mutable and can change its value. Dart will infer types and will not change its data type
var mutableValue = "Variable string";
mutableValue = "this is valid";
mutableValue = false; // Error.
/// `dynamic` is another variable declaration in which the type is not evaluated by the dart static type checking.
/// It can change its value and data type.
/// Some dartisans uses dynamic cautiously as it cannot keep track of its data type. so use it at your own risk
dynamic dynamicValue = "I'm a string";
dynamicValue = false; // false
/// Functions can be declared in a global space
/// Function declaration and method declaration look the same. Function
/// declarations can be nested. The declaration takes the form of
/// name() {} or name() => singleLineExpression;
/// The fat arrow function declaration can be an implicit or
/// explicit return for the result of the expression.
/// Dart will execute a function called `main()` anywhere in the dart project.
///
example1() {
nested1() {
nested2() => print("Example1 nested 1 nested 2");
nested2();
}
nested1();
}
/// Anonymous functions don't include a name
example2() {
//// Explicit return type.
nested1(void Function() fn) {
fn();
}
nested1(() => print("Example2 nested 1"));
}
/// When a function parameter is declared, the declaration can include the
/// number of parameters the function takes by explicitly specifying the names of the
/// parameters it takes.
example3() {
planA(fn(String informSomething)) {
fn("Example3 plan A");
}
planB(fn) {
// Or don't declare number of parameters.
fn("Example3 plan B");
}
planA((s) => print(s));
planB((s) => print(s));
}
/// Functions have closure access to outer variables.
/// Dart will infer types when the variable has a value of something.
/// In this example dart knows that this variable is a String.
var example4Something = "Example4 nested 1";
example4() {
nested1(fn(informSomething)) {
fn(example4Something);
}
nested1((s) => print(s));
}
/// Class declaration with a sayIt method, which also has closure access
/// to the outer variable as though it were a function as seen before.
var example5method = "Example5 sayIt";
class Example5Class {
sayIt() {
print(example5method);
}
}
example5() {
/// Create an anonymous instance of the Example5Class and call the sayIt
/// method on it.
/// the `new` keyword is optional in Dart.
new Example5Class().sayIt();
}
/// Class declaration takes the form of class name { [classBody] }.
/// Where classBody can include instance methods and variables, but also
/// class methods and variables.
class Example6Class {
var instanceVariable = "Example6 instance variable";
sayIt() {
print(instanceVariable);
}
}
example6() {
Example6Class().sayIt();
}
/// Class methods and variables are declared with "static" terms.
class Example7Class {
static var classVariable = "Example7 class variable";
static sayItFromClass() {
print(classVariable);
}
sayItFromInstance() {
print(classVariable);
}
}
example7() {
Example7Class.sayItFromClass();
new Example7Class().sayItFromInstance();
}
/// Dart supports Generics.
/// Generics refers to the technique of writing the code for a class
/// without specifying the data type(s) that the class works on.
/// Source: https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4560890/what-are-generics-in-c
/// Type `T` refers to any type that has been instantiated
/// you can call whatever you want
/// Programmers uses the convention in the following
/// T - Type(used for class and primitype types)
/// E - Element(used for List, Set, or Iterable)
/// K,V - Key Value(used for Map)
class GenericExample<T>{
void printType(){
print("$T")
}
// methods can also have generics
genericMethod<M>(){
print("class:$T, method: $M");
}
}
/// List are similar to arrays but list is a child of Iterable<E>
/// Therefore Maps, List, LinkedList are all child of Iterable<E> to be able to loop using the keyword `for`
/// Important things to remember:
/// () - Iterable<E>
/// [] - List<E>
/// {} - Map<K,V>
/// List are great, but there's a restriction for what List can be
/// outside of function/method bodies. List on the outer scope of class
/// or outside of class have to be constant. Strings and numbers are constant
/// by default. But arrays and maps are not. They can be made constant by
/// declaring them "const". Kind of similar to Javascript's Object.freeze()
const example8List = ["Example8 const array"];
const example8Map = {"someKey": "Example8 const map"};
/// Declare List or Maps as Objects.
List<String> explicitList = new List<String>();
Map<String,dynamic> explicitMaps = new Map<String,dynamic>();
explicitList.add("SomeArray");
example8() {
print(example8Map["someKey"]);
print(explicitList[0]);
}
/// Assigning a list from one variable to another will not be the same result.
/// Because dart is pass-reference-by-value.
/// So when you assign an existing list to a new variable.
/// Instead of List, it becomes an Iterable
var iterableExplicitList = explicitList;
print(iterableExplicitList) // ("SomeArray"); "[]" becomes "()"
var newExplicitLists = explicitList.toList() // Converts Iterable<E> to List<E>
/// Loops in Dart take the form of standard for () {} or while () {} loops,
/// slightly more modern for (.. in ..) {}, or functional callbacks with many
/// supported features, starting with forEach,map and where.
var example9Array = const ["a", "b"];
example9() {
for (int i = 0; i < example9Array.length; i++) {
print("Example9 for loop '${example9Array[i]}'");
}
var i = 0;
while (i < example9Array.length) {
print("Example9 while loop '${example9Array[i]}'");
i++;
}
for (final e in example9Array) {
print("Example9 for-in loop '${e}'");
}
example9Array.forEach((e) => print("Example9 forEach loop '${e}'"));
}
/// To loop over the characters of a string or to extract a substring.
var example10String = "ab";
example10() {
for (var i = 0; i < example10String.length; i++) {
print("Example10 String character loop '${example10String[i]}'");
}
for (var i = 0; i < example10String.length; i++) {
print("Example10 substring loop '${example10String.substring(i, i + 1)}'");
}
}
/// `int`, `double` and `num` are the three supported number formats.
/// `num` can be either `int` or `double`.
/// `int` and `double` are children of type `num`
example11() {
var i = 1 + 320, d = 3.2 + 0.01;
final num myFinalNumDouble = 2.2;
final num myFinalNumInt = 2;
final int myFinalInt = 1;
final double myFinalDouble = 0.1;
num myNumDouble = 2.2;
num myNumInt = 2;
int myInt = 1;
double myDouble = 0; // Dart will add decimal prefix, becomes 0.0;
myNumDouble = myFinalInt; // valid
myNumDouble = myFinalDouble; // valid
myNumDouble = myFinalNumInt; // valid
myNumInt = myFinalInt; // valid
myNumInt = myFinalDouble; // valid
myNumInt = myFinalNumDouble; // valid
myInt = myNumDouble; // error
myInt = myFinalDouble; // error
myInt = myFinalNumInt; // valid
myDouble = myFinalInt; // error
myDouble = myFinalNumInt; // error
myDouble = myFinalNumDouble; // valid
print("Example11 int ${i}");
print("Example11 double ${d}");
}
/// DateTime provides date/time arithmetic.
example12() {
var now = new DateTime.now();
print("Example12 now '${now}'");
now = now.add(new Duration(days: 1));
print("Example12 tomorrow '${now}'");
}
/// Regular expressions are supported.
example13() {
var s1 = "some string", s2 = "some", re = new RegExp("^s.+?g\$");
match(s) {
if (re.hasMatch(s)) {
print("Example13 regexp matches '${s}'");
} else {
print("Example13 regexp doesn't match '${s}'");
}
}
match(s1);
match(s2);
}
/// Boolean expressions support implicit conversions and dynamic type
example14() {
var a = true;
if (a) {
print("true, a is $a");
}
a = false;
if (a) {
print("true, a is $a");
} else {
print("false, a is $a"); /// runs here
}
/// dynamic typed null can not be convert to bool
var b; /// b is dynamic type
b = "abc";
try {
if (b) {
print("true, b is $b");
} else {
print("false, b is $b");
}
} catch (e) {
print("error, b is $b"); /// this could be run but got error
}
b = null;
if (b) { /// Failed assertion: boolean expression must not be null)
print("true, b is $b");
} else {
print("false, b is $b");
}
/// statically typed null can not be convert to bool
var c = "abc";
c = null;
/// compilation failed
/// if (c) {
/// print("true, c is $c");
/// } else {
/// print("false, c is $c");
/// }
}
/// try/catch/finally and throw are used for exception handling.
/// throw takes any object as parameter;
example15() {
try {
try {
throw "Some unexpected error.";
} catch (e) {
print("Example15 an exception: '${e}'");
throw e; /// Re-throw
}
} catch (e) {
print("Example15 catch exception being re-thrown: '${e}'");
} finally {
print("Example15 Still run finally");
}
}
/// To be efficient when creating a long string dynamically, use
/// StringBuffer. Or you could join a string array.
example16() {
var sb = new StringBuffer(), a = ["a", "b", "c", "d"], e;
for (e in a) {
sb.write(e);
}
print("Example16 dynamic string created with "
"StringBuffer '${sb.toString()}'");
print("Example16 join string array '${a.join()}'");
}
/// Strings can be concatenated by just having string List next to
/// one another with no further operator needed.
example17() {
print("Example17 "
"concatenate "
"strings "
"just like that");
}
/// Strings have single-quote or double-quote for delimiters with no
/// actual difference between the two. The given flexibility can be good
/// to avoid the need to escape content that matches the delimiter being
/// used. For example, double-quotes of HTML attributes if the string
/// contains HTML content.
example18() {
print('Example18 <a href="etc">'
"Don't can't I'm Etc"
'</a>');
}
/// Strings with triple single-quotes or triple double-quotes span
/// multiple lines and include line delimiters.
example19() {
print('''Example19 <a href="etc">
Example19 Don't can't I'm Etc
Example19 </a>''');
}
/// Strings have the nice interpolation feature with the $ character.
/// With $ { [expression] }, the return of the expression is interpolated.
/// $ followed by a variable name interpolates the content of that variable.
/// $ can be escaped like so \$ to just add it to the string instead.
example20() {
var s1 = "'\${s}'", s2 = "'\$s'";
print("Example20 \$ interpolation ${s1} or $s2 works.");
}
/// Optional types allow for the annotation of APIs and come to the aid of
/// IDEs so the IDEs can better refactor, auto-complete and check for
/// errors. So far we haven't declared any types and the programs have
/// worked just fine. In fact, types are disregarded during runtime.
/// Types can even be wrong and the program will still be given the
/// benefit of the doubt and be run as though the types didn't matter.
/// There's a runtime parameter that checks for type errors which is
/// the checked mode, which is said to be useful during development time,
/// but which is also slower because of the extra checking and is thus
/// avoided during deployment runtime.
class Example21 {
List<String> _names;
Example21() {
_names = ["a", "b"];
}
List<String> get names => _names;
set names(List<String> list) {
_names = list;
}
int get length => _names.length;
void add(String name) {
_names.add(name);
}
}
void example21() {
Example21 o = new Example21();
o.add("c");
print("Example21 names '${o.names}' and length '${o.length}'");
o.names = ["d", "e"];
print("Example21 names '${o.names}' and length '${o.length}'");
}
/// Class inheritance takes the form of class name extends AnotherClassName {}.
class Example22A {
var _name = "Some Name!";
get name => _name;
}
class Example22B extends Example22A {}
example22() {
var o = new Example22B();
print("Example22 class inheritance '${o.name}'");
}
/// Class mixin is also available, and takes the form of
/// class name extends SomeClass with AnotherClassName {}.
/// It's necessary to extend some class to be able to mixin another one.
/// The template class of mixin cannot at the moment have a constructor.
/// Mixin is mostly used to share methods with distant classes, so the
/// single inheritance doesn't get in the way of reusable code.
/// Mixins follow the "with" statement during the class declaration.
class Example23A {}
class Example23Utils {
addTwo(n1, n2) {
return n1 + n2;
}
}
class Example23B extends Example23A with Example23Utils {
addThree(n1, n2, n3) {
return addTwo(n1, n2) + n3;
}
}
example23() {
var o = new Example23B(), r1 = o.addThree(1, 2, 3), r2 = o.addTwo(1, 2);
print("Example23 addThree(1, 2, 3) results in '${r1}'");
print("Example23 addTwo(1, 2) results in '${r2}'");
}
/// The Class constructor method uses the same name of the class and
/// takes the form of SomeClass() : super() {}, where the ": super()"
/// part is optional and it's used to delegate constant parameters to the
/// super-parent's constructor.
class Example24A {
var _value;
Example24A({value: "someValue"}) {
_value = value;
}
get value => _value;
}
class Example24B extends Example24A {
Example24B({value: "someOtherValue"}) : super(value: value);
}
example24() {
var o1 = new Example24B(), o2 = new Example24B(value: "evenMore");
print("Example24 calling super during constructor '${o1.value}'");
print("Example24 calling super during constructor '${o2.value}'");
}
/// There's a shortcut to set constructor parameters in case of simpler classes.
/// Just use the this.parameterName prefix and it will set the parameter on
/// an instance variable of same name.
class Example25 {
var value, anotherValue;
Example25({this.value, this.anotherValue});
}
example25() {
var o = new Example25(value: "a", anotherValue: "b");
print("Example25 shortcut for constructor '${o.value}' and "
"'${o.anotherValue}'");
}
/// Named parameters are available when declared between {}.
/// Parameter order can be optional when declared between {}.
/// Parameters can be made optional when declared between [].
example26() {
var _name, _surname, _email;
setConfig1({name, surname}) {
_name = name;
_surname = surname;
}
setConfig2(name, [surname, email]) {
_name = name;
_surname = surname;
_email = email;
}
setConfig1(surname: "Doe", name: "John");
print("Example26 name '${_name}', surname '${_surname}', "
"email '${_email}'");
setConfig2("Mary", "Jane");
print("Example26 name '${_name}', surname '${_surname}', "
"email '${_email}'");
}
/// Variables declared with final can only be set once.
/// In case of classes, final instance variables can be set via constant
/// constructor parameter.
class Example27 {
final color1, color2;
/// A little flexibility to set final instance variables with syntax
/// that follows the :
Example27({this.color1, color2}) : color2 = color2;
}
example27() {
final color = "orange", o = new Example27(color1: "lilac", color2: "white");
print("Example27 color is '${color}'");
print("Example27 color is '${o.color1}' and '${o.color2}'");
}
/// To import a library, use import "libraryPath" or if it's a core library,
/// import "dart:libraryName". There's also the "pub" package management with
/// its own convention of import "package:packageName".
/// See import "dart:collection"; at the top. Imports must come before
/// other code declarations. IterableBase comes from dart:collection.
class Example28 extends IterableBase {
var names;
Example28() {
names = ["a", "b"];
}
get iterator => names.iterator;
}
example28() {
var o = new Example28();
o.forEach((name) => print("Example28 '${name}'"));
}
/// For control flow we have:
/// * standard switch with must break statements
/// * if-else if-else and ternary ..?..:.. operator
/// * closures and anonymous functions
/// * break, continue and return statements
example29() {
var v = true ? 30 : 60;
switch (v) {
case 30:
print("Example29 switch statement");
break;
}
if (v < 30) {
} else if (v > 30) {
} else {
print("Example29 if-else statement");
}
callItForMe(fn()) {
return fn();
}
rand() {
v = new DM.Random().nextInt(50);
return v;
}
while (true) {
print("Example29 callItForMe(rand) '${callItForMe(rand)}'");
if (v != 30) {
break;
} else {
continue;
}
/// Never gets here.
}
}
/// Parse int, convert double to int, or just keep int when dividing numbers
/// by using the ~/ operation. Let's play a guess game too.
example30() {
var gn,
tooHigh = false,
n,
n2 = (2.0).toInt(),
top = int.parse("123") ~/ n2,
bottom = 0;
top = top ~/ 6;
gn = new DM.Random().nextInt(top + 1); /// +1 because nextInt top is exclusive
print("Example30 Guess a number between 0 and ${top}");
guessNumber(i) {
if (n == gn) {
print("Example30 Guessed right! The number is ${gn}");
} else {
tooHigh = n > gn;
print("Example30 Number ${n} is too "
"${tooHigh ? 'high' : 'low'}. Try again");
}
return n == gn;
}
n = (top - bottom) ~/ 2;
while (!guessNumber(n)) {
if (tooHigh) {
top = n - 1;
} else {
bottom = n + 1;
}
n = bottom + ((top - bottom) ~/ 2);
}
}
/// Optional Positional Parameter:
/// parameter will be disclosed with square bracket [ ] & square bracketed parameter are optional.
example31() {
findVolume31(int length, int breath, [int height]) {
print('length = $length, breath = $breath, height = $height');
}
findVolume31(10,20,30); //valid
findVolume31(10,20); //also valid
}
/// Optional Named Parameter:
/// parameter will be disclosed with curly bracket { }
/// curly bracketed parameter are optional.
/// have to use parameter name to assign a value which separated with colan :
/// in curly bracketed parameter order does not matter
/// these type parameter help us to avoid confusion while passing value for a function which has many parameter.
example32() {
findVolume32(int length, int breath, {int height}) {
print('length = $length, breath = $breath, height = $height');
}
findVolume32(10,20,height:30);//valid & we can see the parameter name is mentioned here.
findVolume32(10,20);//also valid
}
/// Optional Default Parameter:
/// same like optional named parameter in addition we can assign default value for this parameter.
/// which means no value is passed this default value will be taken.
example33() {
findVolume33(int length, int breath, {int height=10}) {
print('length = $length, breath = $breath, height = $height');
}
findVolume33(10,20,height:30);//valid
findVolume33(10,20);//valid
}
/// Dart has also added feature such as Null aware operators
var isBool = true;
var hasString = isBool ?? "default String";
/// Programs have only one entry point in the main function.
/// Nothing is expected to be executed on the outer scope before a program
/// starts running with what's in its main function.
/// This helps with faster loading and even lazily loading of just what
/// the program needs to startup with.
main() {
print("Learn Dart in 15 minutes!");
[
example1, example2, example3, example4, example5,
example6, example7, example8, example9, example10,
example11, example12, example13, example14, example15,
example16, example17, example18, example19, example20,
example21, example22, example23, example24, example25,
example26, example27, example28, example29,
example30 // Adding this comment stops the dart formatter from putting all items on a new line
].forEach((ef) => ef());
}Dart has a comprehensive web-site. It covers API reference, tutorials, articles and more, including a useful DartPad (a cloud-based Dart coding playground). https://dart.dev/ https://dartpad.dev/