| block.pad(top, bottom, | right, | left) | Enlarge the current block according to the input | | block.scale(fx, fy) | | | Scale the current block given the ratio in x and y direction |
| block.shift(dx, dy) | | | Move the current block with the shift distances in x and y direction |
| block1.is_in(block2) | | | Whether block] is inside of block2 |
| block1. intersect (block2) | | | Return the intersection region of blockl and block2. Coordinate type to be determined based on the inputs. |
| block1.union(block2) | | | Return the union region of blockl and block2. Coordinate type to be determined based on the inputs. |
| block1.relative_to(block2) | | | Convert the absolute coordinates of block to relative coordinates to block2 |
| block1.condition_on(block2) block. crop_image (image) | | | Calculate the absolute coordinates of blockl given the canvas block2’s absolute coordinates Obtain the image segments in the block region |
"
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+ "text": "Scale the current block given the ratio in x and y direction"
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+ "text": "Move the current block with the shift distances in x and y direction"
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+ "text": "block.shift(dx, dy)"
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+ "text": "Whether block1 is inside of block2"
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+ "text": "block1.is in(block2)"
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+ "text": "Return the intersection region of block1 and block2. Coordinate type to be determined based on the inputs."
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+ "text": "Return the union region of block1 and block2. Coordinate type to be determined based on the inputs."
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+ "text": "Calculate the absolute coordinates of block1 given the canvas block2’s absolute coordinates"
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+ "text": "block1.condition on(block2)"
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+ "text": "block.crop image(image)"
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+ "element_id": "fdf3d6c91387c02a0cdaa1ff6b3c67c5",
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+ "text": "Obtain the image segments in the block region"
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "Title",
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+ "metadata": {
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+ "page_number": 8
+ },
+ "text": "3.4 Storage and visualization"
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "NarrativeText",
+ "element_id": "e7addddc6ac19b761866c9749cfa8404",
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+ "text": "The end goal of DIA is to transform the image-based document data into a structured database. LayoutParser supports exporting layout data into different formats like JSON, csv, and will add the support for the METS/ALTO XML format 14 . It can also load datasets from layout analysis-specific formats like COCO [38] and the Page Format [25] for training layout models (Section 3.5). Visualization of the layout detection results is critical for both presentation and debugging. LayoutParser is built with an integrated API for displaying the layout information along with the original document image. Shown in Figure 3, it enables presenting layout data with rich meta information and features in different modes. More detailed information can be found in the online LayoutParser documentation page."
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "Title",
+ "element_id": "d57c26aad19349fc98ee8822f24f19d9",
+ "metadata": {
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+ "page_number": 8
+ },
+ "text": "3.5 Customized Model Training"
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "NarrativeText",
+ "element_id": "e07a3053a112880cf693f019d010cc19",
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+ "page_number": 8
+ },
+ "text": "Besides the off-the-shelf library, LayoutParser is also highly customizable with supports for highly unique and challenging document analysis tasks. Target document images can be vastly different from the existing datasets for train- ing layout models, which leads to low layout detection accuracy. Training data"
+ },
+ {
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+ "page_number": 8
+ },
+ "text": "14 https://altoxml.github.io"
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "ListItem",
+ "element_id": "4c2478cf439baab6ace34761eda527d9",
+ "metadata": {
+ "data_source": {},
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+ "page_number": 9
+ },
+ "text": "LayoutParser: A Unified Toolkit for DL-Based DIA"
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "Image",
+ "element_id": "6df6057f894a166cf24fd34f64267f09",
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+ },
+ "text": "a ESStee eaeoooMode I: Showing Layout on the Original ImageMode Il: Drawing OCR'd Text at the Correspoding Position10g Bpunog vayoy feyds1q :1 vondo‘xog Burpunog vay apiH z word"
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "NarrativeText",
+ "element_id": "cc8ad6e0f933633a37b82200e6724f9e",
+ "metadata": {
+ "data_source": {},
+ "filetype": "application/pdf",
+ "page_number": 9
+ },
+ "text": "Fig. 3: Layout detection and OCR results visualization generated by the LayoutParser APIs. Mode I directly overlays the layout region bounding boxes and categories over the original image. Mode II recreates the original document via drawing the OCR’d texts at their corresponding positions on the image canvas. In this figure, tokens in textual regions are filtered using the API and then displayed."
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "NarrativeText",
+ "element_id": "19cc210888c40b3403e1992b335bccf7",
+ "metadata": {
+ "data_source": {},
+ "filetype": "application/pdf",
+ "page_number": 9
+ },
+ "text": "can also be highly sensitive and not sharable publicly. To overcome these chal- lenges, LayoutParser is built with rich features for efficient data annotation and customized model training."
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "NarrativeText",
+ "element_id": "60c0620e0e68ad30f5cff23dd0ef53c5",
+ "metadata": {
+ "data_source": {},
+ "filetype": "application/pdf",
+ "page_number": 9
+ },
+ "text": "LayoutParser incorporates a toolkit optimized for annotating document lay- outs using object-level active learning [32]. With the help from a layout detection model trained along with labeling, only the most important layout objects within each image, rather than the whole image, are required for labeling. The rest of the regions are automatically annotated with high confidence predictions from the layout detection model. This allows a layout dataset to be created more efficiently with only around 60% of the labeling budget."
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "NarrativeText",
+ "element_id": "7cc706ff50f3746845f312c011318d84",
+ "metadata": {
+ "data_source": {},
+ "filetype": "application/pdf",
+ "page_number": 9
+ },
+ "text": "After the training dataset is curated, LayoutParser supports different modes for training the layout models. Fine-tuning can be used for training models on a small newly-labeled dataset by initializing the model with existing pre-trained weights. Training from scratch can be helpful when the source dataset and target are significantly different and a large training set is available. However, as suggested in Studer et al.’s work[33], loading pre-trained weights on large-scale datasets like ImageNet [5], even from totally different domains, can still boost model performance. Through the integrated API provided by LayoutParser, users can easily compare model performances on the benchmark datasets."
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "ListItem",
+ "element_id": "9bf176adca2cfa747e7f0255bfc3594a",
+ "metadata": {
+ "data_source": {},
+ "filetype": "application/pdf",
+ "page_number": 10
+ },
+ "text": "10 Z. Shen et al."
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "Image",
+ "element_id": "cd0055b04f6049e9d9bf49a4f309f7e9",
+ "metadata": {
+ "data_source": {},
+ "filetype": "application/pdf",
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+ },
+ "text": "Text‘Token CategoriestieAddress(Numberig:3pio Bupeas uwunjog(a) Illustration of the original Japanese document with detected layout elements highlighted in colored boxesColumn CategoriesCRE) OR REKER te setPikes enceee+41ybiay pamoyy wnwrxey(b) Illustration of the recreated document with dense text structure for better OCR performance"
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "NarrativeText",
+ "element_id": "f6d1c03644c4866a2dd06f8e432f6286",
+ "metadata": {
+ "data_source": {},
+ "filetype": "application/pdf",
+ "page_number": 10
+ },
+ "text": "Fig. 4: Illustration of (a) the original historical Japanese document with layout detection results and (b) a recreated version of the document image that achieves much better character recognition recall. The reorganization algorithm rearranges the tokens based on the their detected bounding boxes given a maximum allowed height."
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "Title",
+ "element_id": "a84f27645308850514566b3bb9d3efa0",
+ "metadata": {
+ "data_source": {},
+ "filetype": "application/pdf",
+ "page_number": 10
+ },
+ "text": "4 LayoutParser Community Platform"
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "NarrativeText",
+ "element_id": "ea475aba47ae4b4db2eeb1a96bc30797",
+ "metadata": {
+ "data_source": {},
+ "filetype": "application/pdf",
+ "page_number": 10
+ },
+ "text": "Another focus of LayoutParser is promoting the reusability of layout detection models and full digitization pipelines. Similar to many existing deep learning libraries, LayoutParser comes with a community model hub for distributing layout models. End-users can upload their self-trained models to the model hub, and these models can be loaded into a similar interface as the currently available LayoutParser pre-trained models. For example, the model trained on the News Navigator dataset [17] has been incorporated in the model hub."
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "NarrativeText",
+ "element_id": "966440df8a08ef481c35486bdb301d6a",
+ "metadata": {
+ "data_source": {},
+ "filetype": "application/pdf",
+ "page_number": 10
+ },
+ "text": "Beyond DL models, LayoutParser also promotes the sharing of entire doc- ument digitization pipelines. For example, sometimes the pipeline requires the combination of multiple DL models to achieve better accuracy. Currently, pipelines are mainly described in academic papers and implementations are often not pub- licly available. To this end, the LayoutParser community platform also enables the sharing of layout pipelines to promote the discussion and reuse of techniques. For each shared pipeline, it has a dedicated project page, with links to the source code, documentation, and an outline of the approaches. A discussion panel is provided for exchanging ideas. Combined with the core LayoutParser library, users can easily build reusable components based on the shared pipelines and apply them to solve their unique problems."
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "Title",
+ "element_id": "0e654d0b0bc44cbd58f1cb7c7b02c3c5",
+ "metadata": {
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+ "page_number": 10
+ },
+ "text": "5 Use Cases"
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "NarrativeText",
+ "element_id": "9d4feeabd8c04d4b33897afb58e46f55",
+ "metadata": {
+ "data_source": {},
+ "filetype": "application/pdf",
+ "page_number": 10
+ },
+ "text": "The core objective of LayoutParser is to make it easier to create both large-scale and light-weight document digitization pipelines. Large-scale document processing"
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "Title",
+ "element_id": "4c2478cf439baab6ace34761eda527d9",
+ "metadata": {
+ "data_source": {},
+ "filetype": "application/pdf",
+ "page_number": 11
+ },
+ "text": "LayoutParser: A Unified Toolkit for DL-Based DIA"
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "NarrativeText",
+ "element_id": "5cdbcea58a81d8f7de9a4fa841107be1",
+ "metadata": {
+ "data_source": {},
+ "filetype": "application/pdf",
+ "page_number": 11
+ },
+ "text": "focuses on precision, efficiency, and robustness. The target documents may have complicated structures, and may require training multiple layout detection models to achieve the optimal accuracy. Light-weight pipelines are built for relatively simple documents, with an emphasis on development ease, speed and flexibility. Ideally one only needs to use existing resources, and model training should be avoided. Through two exemplar projects, we show how practitioners in both academia and industry can easily build such pipelines using LayoutParser and extract high-quality structured document data for their downstream tasks. The source code for these projects will be publicly available in the LayoutParser community hub."
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "Title",
+ "element_id": "1fe1cb84a12b8216ea9d734262b3e4ec",
+ "metadata": {
+ "data_source": {},
+ "filetype": "application/pdf",
+ "page_number": 11
+ },
+ "text": "5.1 A Comprehensive Historical Document Digitization Pipeline"
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "NarrativeText",
+ "element_id": "049e8b4df63657b4376b02d0e493a960",
+ "metadata": {
+ "data_source": {},
+ "filetype": "application/pdf",
+ "page_number": 11
+ },
+ "text": "The digitization of historical documents can unlock valuable data that can shed light on many important social, economic, and historical questions. Yet due to scan noises, page wearing, and the prevalence of complicated layout structures, ob- taining a structured representation of historical document scans is often extremely complicated. In this example, LayoutParser was used to develop a comprehensive pipeline, shown in Figure 5, to gener- ate high-quality structured data from historical Japanese firm financial ta- bles with complicated layouts. The pipeline applies two layout models to identify different levels of document structures and two customized OCR engines for optimized character recog- nition accuracy."
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "Image",
+ "element_id": "d32d5d93079c0053b7ef655185e47bb4",
+ "metadata": {
+ "data_source": {},
+ "filetype": "application/pdf",
+ "page_number": 11
+ },
+ "text": "Annotate Layout Dataset(spe peepee,Active Learning LayoutAnnotation Toolkit4Layout Detection<—Deep Learning LayoutModel Training & Inference,4Post-processin Handy Data Structures &pl 9 APIs for Layout DataText Recognition Default and Customized: r OCR ModelsVisualization & Export |], bayou StructureVisualization & StorageThe Japanese DocumentDigitization PipelineHelpful LayoutParserModules"
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "NarrativeText",
+ "element_id": "fa19ab2536cbbb48c09de29fdebd52bd",
+ "metadata": {
+ "data_source": {},
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+ },
+ "text": "As shown in Figure 4 (a), the document contains columns of text written vertically 15, a common style in Japanese. Due to scanning noise and archaic printing technology, the columns can be skewed or have vari- able widths, and hence cannot be eas- ily identified via rule-based methods. Within each column, words are sepa- rated by white spaces of variable size, and the vertical positions of objects can be an indicator of their layout type."
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "NarrativeText",
+ "element_id": "3cbd8234ac0c6d29feb24e6202144aa8",
+ "metadata": {
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+ "filetype": "application/pdf",
+ "page_number": 11
+ },
+ "text": "Fig. 5: Illustration of how LayoutParser helps with the historical document digi- tization pipeline."
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "NarrativeText",
+ "element_id": "de8f09a4156ca73defac521bb354a297",
+ "metadata": {
+ "data_source": {},
+ "filetype": "application/pdf",
+ "page_number": 11
+ },
+ "text": "& document page consists of eight rows like this. For simplicity we skip the row segmentation discussion and refer readers to the source code when available."
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "Title",
+ "element_id": "de2a222ad7b9cf1e5e5432f53c15996d",
+ "metadata": {
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+ "page_number": 12
+ },
+ "text": "12 Z. Shen et al."
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "NarrativeText",
+ "element_id": "7174760d4c8d9b7b13da3918015312dc",
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+ "text": "To decipher the complicated layout"
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "NarrativeText",
+ "element_id": "9b51c55d2dd4ffd289138fc4f66e11e6",
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+ },
+ "text": "structure, two object detection models have been trained to recognize individual columns and tokens, respectively. A small training set (400 images with approxi- mately 100 annotations each) is curated via the active learning based annotation tool [32] in LayoutParser. The models learn to identify both the categories and regions for each token or column via their distinct visual features. The layout data structure enables easy grouping of the tokens within each column, and rearranging columns to achieve the correct reading orders based on the horizontal position. Errors are identified and rectified via checking the consistency of the model predictions. Therefore, though trained on a small dataset, the pipeline achieves a high level of layout detection accuracy: it achieves a 96.97 AP [19] score across 5 categories for the column detection model, and a 89.23 AP across 4 categories for the token detection model."
+ },
+ {
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+ "text": "A combination of character recognition methods is developed to tackle the unique challenges in this document. In our experiments, we found that irregular spacing between the tokens led to a low character recognition recall rate, whereas existing OCR models tend to perform better on densely-arranged texts. To overcome this challenge, we create a document reorganization algorithm that rearranges the text based on the token bounding boxes detected in the layout analysis step. Figure 4 (b) illustrates the generated image of dense text, which is sent to the OCR APIs as a whole to reduce the transaction costs. The flexible coordinate system in LayoutParser is used to transform the OCR results relative to their original positions on the page."
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "NarrativeText",
+ "element_id": "07be9fda679b805e67cf5e563eada033",
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+ "text": "Additionally, it is common for historical documents to use unique fonts with different glyphs, which significantly degrades the accuracy of OCR models trained on modern texts. In this document, a special flat font is used for printing numbers and could not be detected by off-the-shelf OCR engines. Using the highly flexible functionalities from LayoutParser, a pipeline approach is constructed that achieves a high recognition accuracy with minimal effort. As the characters have unique visual structures and are usually clustered together, we train the layout model to identify number regions with a dedicated category. Subsequently, LayoutParser crops images within these regions, and identifies characters within them using a self-trained OCR model based on a CNN-RNN [6]. The model detects a total of 15 possible categories, and achieves a 0.98 Jaccard score16 and a 0.17 average Levinstein distances17 for token prediction on the test set."
+ },
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+ "text": "Overall, it is possible to create an intricate and highly accurate digitization pipeline for large-scale digitization using LayoutParser. The pipeline avoids specifying the complicated rules used in traditional methods, is straightforward to develop, and is robust to outliers. The DL models also generate fine-grained results that enable creative approaches like page reorganization for OCR."
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+ "text": "16 This measures the overlap between the detected and ground-truth characters, and"
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+ "text": "This measures the overlap between the detected and ground-truth characters, the maximum is 1."
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+ "text": "'7 This measures the number of edits from the ground-truth text to the predicted text, and lower is better."
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+ "text": "LayoutParser: A Unified Toolkit for DL-Based DIA"
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+ "text": "(2) Partial table atthe bottom (&) Full page table (6) Partial table at the top (d) Mis-detected tet line"
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+ "text": "Fig. 6: This lightweight table detector can identify tables (outlined in red) and cells (shaded in blue) in different locations on a page. In very few cases (d), it might generate minor error predictions, e.g, failing to capture the top text line of a table."
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+ "text": "5.2 A light-weight Visual Table Extractor"
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+ "text": "Detecting tables and parsing their structures (table extraction) are of central im- portance for many document digitization tasks. Many previous works [26, 30, 27] and tools 18 have been developed to identify and parse table structures. Yet they might require training complicated models from scratch, or are only applicable for born-digital PDF documents. In this section, we show how LayoutParser can help build a light-weight accurate visual table extractor for legal docket tables using the existing resources with minimal effort."
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+ "text": "The extractor uses a pre-trained layout detection model for identifying the table regions and some simple rules for pairing the rows and the columns in the PDF image. Mask R-CNN [12] trained on the PubLayNet dataset [38] from the LayoutParser Model Zoo can be used for detecting table regions. By filtering out model predictions of low confidence and removing overlapping predictions, LayoutParser can identify the tabular regions on each page, which significantly simplifies the subsequent steps. By applying the line detection functions within the tabular segments, provided in the utility module from LayoutParser, the pipeline can identify the three distinct columns in the tables. A row clustering method is then applied via analyzing the y coordinates of token bounding boxes in the left-most column, which are obtained from the OCR engines. A non-maximal suppression algorithm is used to remove duplicated rows with extremely small gaps. Shown in Figure 6, the built pipeline can detect tables at different positions on a page accurately. Continued tables from different pages are concatenated, and a structured table representation has been easily created."
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+ "text": "18 https://github.com/atlanhq/camelot, https://github.com/tabulapdf/tabula"
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+ "text": "14 Z. Shen et al."
+ },
+ {
+ "type": "Title",
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+ "text": "6 Conclusion"
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+ "text": "LayoutParser provides a comprehensive toolkit for deep learning-based document image analysis. The off-the-shelf library is easy to install, and can be used to build flexible and accurate pipelines for processing documents with complicated structures. It also supports high-level customization and enables easy labeling and training of DL models on unique document image datasets. The LayoutParser community platform facilitates sharing DL models and DIA pipelines, inviting discussion and promoting code reproducibility and reusability. The LayoutParser team is committed to keeping the library updated continuously and bringing the most recent advances in DL-based DIA, such as multi-modal document modeling [37, 36, 9] (an upcoming priority), to a diverse audience of end-users."
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+ "text": "Acknowledgements We thank the anonymous reviewers for their comments and suggestions. This project is supported in part by NSF Grant OIA-2033558 and funding from the Harvard Data Science Initiative and Harvard Catalyst. Zejiang Shen thanks Doug Downey for suggestions."
+ },
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+ "text": "References"
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diff --git a/test_unstructured_ingest/expected-structured-output/s3/small-pdf-set/2023-Jan-economic-outlook.pdf.json b/test_unstructured_ingest/expected-structured-output/s3/small-pdf-set/2023-Jan-economic-outlook.pdf.json
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+ "text": "INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND"
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+ "text": "WORLD ECONOMIC OUTLOOK UPDATE Inflation Peaking amid Low Growth"
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+ "text": "2023 JAN"
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+ "text": " Global growth is projected to fall from an estimated 3.4 percent in 2022 to 2.9 percent in 2023, then rise to 3.1 percent in 2024. The forecast for 2023 is 0.2 percentage point higher than predicted in the October 2022 World Economic Outlook (WEO) but below the historical (2000–19) average of 3.8 percent. The rise in central bank rates to fight inflation and Russia’s war in Ukraine continue to weigh on economic activity. The rapid spread of COVID-19 in China dampened growth in 2022, but the recent reopening has paved the way for a faster-than-expected recovery. Global inflation is expected to fall from 8.8 percent in 2022 to 6.6 percent in 2023 and 4.3 percent in 2024, still above pre-pandemic (2017–19) levels of about 3.5 percent."
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+ "text": "© = The balance of risks remains tilted to the downside, but adverse risks have moderated since the October 2022 WEO. On the upside, a stronger boost from pent-up demand in numerous economies or a faster fall in inflation are plausible. On the downside, severe health outcomes in China could hold back the recovery, Russia’s war in Ukraine could escalate, and tighter global financing conditions could worsen debt distress. Financial markets could also suddenly reprice in response to adverse inflation news, while further geopolitical fragmentation could hamper economic progress."
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+ "text": "tighter monetary conditions and lower growth potentially affecting financial and debt stability, it is necessary to deploy macroprudential tools and strengthen debt restructuring frameworks. Accelerating COVID-19 vaccinations in China would safeguard the recovery, with positive cross-border spillovers. Fiscal support should be better targeted at those most affected by elevated food and energy prices, and broad-based fiscal relief measures should be withdrawn. Stronger multilateral cooperation is essential to preserve the gains from the rules-based multilateral system and to mitigate climate change by limiting emissions and raising green investment."
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+ "text": "The global fight against inflation, Russia’s war in Ukraine, and a resurgence of COVID-19 in China weighed on global economic activity in 2022, and the first two factors will continue to do so in 2023."
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+ "text": "Despite these headwinds, real GDP was surprisingly strong in the third quarter of 2022 in numerous economies, including the United States, the euro area, and major emerging market and developing economies. The sources of these surprises were in many cases domestic: stronger-than-expected private consumption and investment amid tight labor markets and greater-than-anticipated fiscal support. Households spent more to satisfy pent-up demand, particularly on services, partly by drawing down their stock of savings as economies reopened. Business investment rose to meet demand. On the supply side, easing bottlenecks and declining transportation costs reduced pressures on input prices and allowed for a rebound in previously constrained sectors, such as motor vehicles. Energy markets have adjusted faster than expected to the shock from Russia’s invasion of Ukraine."
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+ "text": "In the fourth quarter of 2022, however, this uptick is estimated to have faded in most—though not all––major economies. US growth remains stronger than expected, with consumers continuing to spend from their stock of savings (the personal saving rate is at its lowest in more than 60 years, except for July 2005), unemployment near historic lows, and plentiful job opportunities. But elsewhere, high-frequency activity indicators (such as business and consumer sentiment, purchasing manager surveys, and mobility indicators) generally point to a slowdown."
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+ "text": "COVID-19 deepens China’s slowdown. Economic activity in China slowed in the fourth quarter amid multiple large COVID-19 outbreaks in Beijing and other densely populated localities. Renewed lockdowns accompanied the outbreaks until the relaxation of COVID-19 restrictions in November and December, which paved the way for a full reopening. Real estate investment continued to contract, and developer restructuring is proceeding slowly, amid the lingering property market crisis. Developers have yet to deliver on a large backlog of presold housing, and downward pressure is building on house prices (so far limited by home price floors). The authorities have responded with additional monetary and fiscal policy easing, new vaccination targets for the elderly, and steps to support the completion of unfinished real estate projects. However, consumer and business sentiment remained subdued in late 2022. China’s slowdown has reduced global trade growth and international commodity prices."
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+ "text": "Monetary policy starts to bite. Signs are apparent that monetary policy tightening is starting to cool demand and inflation, but the full impact is unlikely to be realized before 2024. Global headline inflation appears to have peaked in the third quarter of 2022 (Figure 1). Prices of fuel and nonfuel commodities have declined, lowering headline inflation, notably in the United States, the euro area, and Latin America. But underlying (core) inflation has not yet peaked in most economies and remains well above pre-pandemic levels. It has persisted amid second-round effects from earlier cost shocks and tight labor markets with robust wage growth as consumer demand has remained resilient. Medium-term inflation expectations generally remain anchored, but some gauges are up. These developments have caused central banks to raise rates faster than expected, especially in the United States and the euro area, and to signal that rates will stay elevated for longer. Core inflation is declining in some economies that have completed their tightening cycle—such as Brazil. Financial markets are displaying high sensitivity to inflation news, with equity markets rising following recent releases of lower inflation data in anticipation of interest rate cuts (Box 1), despite central banks’ communicating their resolve to tighten policy further. With the peak in US headline inflation and an acceleration in rate hikes by several non-US central banks, the dollar has weakened since September but remains significantly stronger than a year ago."
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+ "text": "visible in consumption and investment data for the third quarter––partly reflects government support of about 1.2 percent of European Union GDP (net budgetary cost) to households and firms hit by the energy crisis, as well as dynamism from economies reopening. Gas prices have declined by more than expected amid higher non-Russian pipeline and liquefied natural gas flows, compression of demand for gas, and a warmer-than-usual winter. However, the boost from reopening appears to be fading. High-frequency indicators for the fourth quarter suggest that the manufacturing and services sectors are contracting. Consumer confidence and business sentiment have worsened. With inflation at about 10 percent or above in several euro area countries and the United Kingdom, household budgets remain stretched. The accelerated pace of rate increases by the Bank of England and the European Central Bank is tightening financial conditions and cooling demand in the housing sector and beyond."
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+ "text": "The Forecast"
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+ "text": "Growth Bottoming Out"
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+ "text": "Global growth, estimated at 3.4 percent in 2022, is projected to fall to 2.9 percent in 2023 before rising to 3.1 percent in 2024 (Table 1). Compared with the October forecast, the estimate for 2022 and the forecast for 2023 are both higher by about 0.2 percentage point, reflecting positive surprises and greater-than-expected resilience in numerous economies. Negative growth in global GDP or global GDP per capita—which often happens when there is a global recession—is not expected. Nevertheless, global growth projected for 2023 and 2024 is below the historical (2000–19) annual average of 3.8 percent."
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+ "text": "The forecast of low growth in 2023 reflects the rise in central bank rates to fight inflation–– especially in advanced economies––as well as the war in Ukraine. The decline in growth in 2023 from 2022 is driven by advanced economies; in emerging market and developing economies, growth is estimated to have bottomed out in 2022. Growth is expected to pick up in China with the full reopening in 2023. The expected pickup in 2024 in both groups of economies reflects gradual recovery from the effects of the war in Ukraine and subsiding inflation. Following the path of global demand, world trade growth is expected to decline in 2023 to 2.4 percent, despite an easing of supply bottlenecks, before rising to 3.4 percent in 2024."
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+ "text": "These forecasts are based on a number of assumptions, including on fuel and nonfuel commodity prices, which have generally been revised down since October, and on interest rates, which have been revised up. In 2023, oil prices are projected to fall by about 16 percent, while nonfuel commodity prices are expected to fall by, on average, 6.3 percent. Global interest rate assumptions are revised up, reflecting intensified actual and signaled policy tightening by major central banks since October."
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+ "text": "For advanced economies, growth is projected to decline sharply from 2.7 percent in 2022 to 1.2 percent in 2023 before rising to 1.4 percent in 2024, with a downward revision of 0.2 percentage point for 2024. About 90 percent of advanced economies are projected to see a decline in growth in 2023."
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+ "text": "In the United States, growth is projected to fall from 2.0 percent in 2022 to 1.4 percent in 2023 and 1.0 percent in 2024. With growth rebounding in the second half of 2024, growth in 2024 will be faster than in 2023 on a fourth-quarter-over-fourth-quarter basis, as in most advanced"
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+ "text": "economies. There is a 0.4 percentage point upward revision for annual growth in 2023, reflecting carryover effects from domestic demand resilience in 2022, but a 0.2 percentage point downward revision of growth in 2024 due to the steeper path of Federal Reserve rate hikes, to a peak of about 5.1 percent in 2023."
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+ "text": "Growth in the ero area is projected to bottom out at 0.7 percent in 2023 before rising to 1.6 percent in 2024. The 0.2 percentage point upward revision to the forecast for 2023 reflects the effects of faster rate hikes by the European Central Bank and eroding real incomes, offset by the carryover from the 2022 outturn, lower wholesale energy prices, and additional announcements of fiscal purchasing power support in the form of energy price controls and cash transfers."
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+ "text": "Growth in the United Kingdom is projected to be —0.6 percent in 2023, a 0.9 percentage point downward revision from October, reflecting tighter fiscal and monetary policies and financial conditions and still-high energy retail prices weighing on household budgets."
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+ "text": "Growth in Japan is projected to rise to 1.8 percent in 2023, with continued monetary and fiscal policy support. High corporate profits from a depreciated yen and earlier delays in implementing previous projects will support business investment. In 2024, growth is expected to decline to 0.9 percent as the effects of past stimulus dissipate."
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+ "text": "For emerging market and developing economies, growth is projected to rise modestly, from 3.9 percent in 2022 to 4.0 percent in 2023 and 4.2 percent in 2024, with an upward revision of 0.3 percentage point for 2023 and a downward revision of 0.1 percentage point for 2024. About half of emerging market and developing economies have lower growth in 2023 than in 2022."
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+ "text": "percent, respectively, after the deeper-than-expected slowdown in 2022 to 4.3 percent attributable to China’s economy. China’s real GDP slowdown in the fourth quarter of 2022 implies a 0.2 percentage point downgrade for 2022 growth to 3.0 percent—the first time in more than 40 years with China’s growth below the global average. Growth in China is projected to rise to 5.2 percent in 2023, reflecting rapidly improving mobility, and to fall to 4.5 percent in 2024 before settling at below 4 percent over the medium term amid declining business dynamism and slow progress on structural reforms. Growth in India is set to decline from 6.8 percent in 2022 to 6.1 percent in 2023 before picking up to 6.8 percent in 2024, with resilient domestic demand despite external headwinds. Growth in the ASEAN-5 countries (Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand) is similarly projected to slow to 4.3 percent in 2023 and then pick up to 4.7 percent in 2024."
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+ "text": "Growth in emerging and developing Europe is projected to have bottomed out in 2022 at 0.7 percent and, since the October forecast, has been revised up for 2023 by 0.9 percentage point to 1.5 percent. This reflects a smaller economic contraction in Russia in 2022 (estimated at –2.2 percent compared with a predicted –3.4 percent) followed by modestly positive growth in 2023. At the current oil price cap level of the Group of Seven, Russian crude oil export volumes are not expected to be significantly affected, with Russian trade continuing to be redirected from sanctioning to non-sanctioning countries. In Latin America and the Caribbean, growth is projected to decline from 3.9 percent in 2022 to 1.8 percent in 2023, with an upward revision for 2023 of 0.1 percentage point since October. The forecast revision reflects upgrades of 0.2 percentage point for Brazil and 0.5 percentage point for Mexico due to unexpected domestic demand resilience, higher-than-expected growth in"
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+ "text": "major trading partner economies, and in Brazil, greater-than-expected fiscal support. Growth in the region is projected to rise to 2.1 percent in 2024, although with a downward revision of 0.3 percentage point, reflecting tighter financial conditions, lower prices of exported commodities, and downward revisions to trading partner growth."
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+ "text": "Growth in the Middle East and Central Asia is projected to decline from 5.3 percent in 2022 to 3.2 percent in 2023, with a downward revision of 0.4 percentage point since October, mainly attributable to a steeper-than-expected growth slowdown in Saudi Arabia, from 8.7 percent in 2022 (which was stronger than expected by 1.1 percentage points) to 2.6 percent in 2023, with a negative revision of 1.1 percentage points. The downgrade for 2023 reflects mainly lower oil production in line with an agreement through OPEC+ (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, including Russia and other non-OPEC oil exporters), while non-oil growth is expected to remain robust. In sub-Saharan Africa, growth is projected to remain moderate at 3.8 percent in 2023 amid prolonged fallout from the COVID-19 pandemic, although with a modest upward revision since October, before picking up to 4.1 percent in 2024. The small upward revision for 2023 (0.1 percentage point) reflects Nigeria’s rising growth in 2023 due to measures to address insecurity issues in the oil sector. In South Africa, by contrast, after a COVID-19 reopening rebound in 2022, projected growth more than halves in 2023, to 1.2 percent, reflecting weaker external demand, power shortages, and structural constraints."
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+ "text": "over Estimate___ Projections WEO Projections 1/ Estimate Projections 2021 2022 2023 2024 2023 2024 2022 2023 2024 World Output 6.2 34 29 34 0.2 0.1 1.9 3.2 3.0 Advanced Economies 5.4 27 1.2 14 04 0.2 1.3 14 1.6 United States 5.9 2.0 14 1.0 04 -0.2 07 1.0 13 Euro Area 5.3 3.5 07 16 0.2 -0.2 19 0.5 24 Germany 26 19 01 14 04 0.1 14 0.0 23 France 68 26 07 16 0.0 0.0 0.5 09 18 Italy 67 3.9 06 0.9 08 -04 21 0.1 1.0 Spain 5.5 5.2 14 24 -0.1 -0.2 21 13 28 Japan 21 14 18 0.9 0.2 -04 17 1.0 1.0 United Kingdom 76 41 -06 0.9 -0.9 03 04 -05 18 Canada 5.0 3.5 15 15 0.0 0.1 23 12 1.9 Other Advanced Economies 3/ 5.3 28 20 24 -03 02 14 2a 2.2 Emerging Market and Developing Economies 67 3.9 40 42 0.3 -0.1 25 5.0 4A Emerging and Developing Asia 74 43 5.3 5.2 04 0.0 3.4 6.2 49 China 84 3.0 5.2 45 08 0.0 29 5.9 41 India 4/ 87 68 61 68 0.0 0.0 43 70 7A Emerging and Developing Europe 69 07 15 26 0.9 01 -2.0 3.5 28 Russia 47 -2.2 0.3 21 26 06 441 1.0 2.0 Latin America and the Caribbean 7.0 3.9 18 2a 04 0.3 26 1.9 19 Brazil 5.0 34 12 15 0.2 -04 28 0.8 22 Mexico 47 34 47 16 05 -0.2 37 14 1.9 Middle East and Central Asia 45 5.3 3.2 37 -04 0.2 . . . Saudi Arabia 3.2 87 26 34 -11 0.5 46 27 35 Sub-Saharan Africa 47 38 38 41 04 0.0 = ao ao Nigeria 3.6 3.0 3.2 29 0.2 0.0 26 31 29 South Africa 49 26 12 13 01 0.0 3.0 0.5 18 Memorandum World Growth Based on Market Exchange Rates 6.0 3.41 24 25 03 -0.1 17 25 25 European Union 5.5 37 07 18 0.0 -0.3 18 1.2 2.0 ASEAN-5 5/ 3.8 5.2 43 47 0.2 -0.2 37 57 40 Middle East and North Africa 41 54 3.2 35 -04 0.2 a . . Emerging Market and Middle-Income Economies 70 38 40 44 04 0.0 25 5.0 44 Low-Income Developing Countries 441 49 49 56 0.0 01 World Trade Volume (goods and services) 6/ 10.4 5.4 24 3.4 -01 -0.3 Advanced Economies 94 66 23 27 0.0 -04 Emerging Market and Developing Economies 124 34 26 46 03 0.0 Commodity Prices 7/ 65.8 39.8 -16.2 71 33 -0.9 11.2 -98 59 Nonfuel (average based on world commodity import weights) 26.4 70 -6.3 -0.4 -01 03 -2.0 14 -0.2"
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+ "text": "Note: Real effective exchange rates are assumed to remain constant at the levels prevailing during October 26, 2022--November 23, 2022. Economies are listed on the basis of economic size. The aggregated quarterly data are seasonally adjusted. WEO = World Economic Outlook. 1/ Difference based on rounded figures for the current and October 2022 WEO forecasts. Countries whose forecasts have been updated relative to October 2022 WEO forecasts account for approximately 90 percent of world GDP measured at purchasing-power-parity weights. 2/ For World Output (Emerging Market and Developing Economies), the quarterly estimates and projections account for approximately 90 percent (80 percent) of annual world (emerging market and developing economies') output at purchasing-power-parity weights. 3/ Excludes the Group of Seven (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, United Kingdom, United States) and euro area countries. 4/ For India, data and projections are presented on a fiscal year basis, with FY 2022/23 (starting in April 2022) shown in the 2022 column. India's growth projections are 5.4 percent in 2023 and 6.8 percent in 2024 based on calendar year. 5/ Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand. 6/ Simple average of growth rates for export and import volumes (goods and services). 7/ Simple average of prices of UK Brent, Dubai Fateh, and West Texas Intermediate crude oil. The average assumed price of oil in US dollars a barrel, based on futures markets (as of November 29, 2022), is $81.13 in 2023 and $75.36 in 2024. 8/ Excludes Venezuela. 9/ The inflation rate for the euro area is 5.7% in 2023 and 3.3% in 2024, that for Japan is 2.8% in 2023 and 2.0% in 2024, and that for the United States is 4.0% in 2023 and 2.2% in 2024."
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+ "text": "pressuring Russia to end hostilities are splitting the world economy into blocs and reinforcing earlier geopolitical tensions, such as those associated with the US-China trade dispute."
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+ "text": "Fragmentation could intensify—with more restrictions on cross-border movements of capital, workers, and international payments—and could hamper multilateral cooperation on providing global public goods.1 The costs of such fragmentation are especially high in the short term, as replacing disrupted cross-border flows takes time."
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+ "text": "Policy Priorities"
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+ "text": "Securing global disinflation: For most economies, the priority remains achieving a sustained reduction in inflation toward target levels. Raising real policy rates and keeping them above their neutral levels until underlying inflation is clearly declining would ward off risks of inflation expectations de- anchoring. Clear central bank communication and appropriate reactions to shifts in the data will help keep inflation expectations anchored and lessen wage and price pressures. Central banks’ balance sheets will need to be unwound carefully, amid market liquidity risks. Gradual and steady fiscal tightening would contribute to cooling demand and limit the burden on monetary policy in the fight against inflation. In countries where output remains below potential and inflation is in check, maintaining monetary and fiscal accommodation may be appropriate."
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+ "text": "Containing the reemergence of COVID-19: Addressing the ongoing pandemic requires coordinated efforts to boost vaccination and medicine access in countries where coverage remains low as well as the deployment of pandemic preparedness measures—including a global push toward sequencing and sharing data. In China, focusing vaccination efforts on vulnerable groups and maintaining sufficiently high coverage of boosters and antiviral medicines would minimize the risks of severe health outcomes and safeguard the recovery, with favorable cross-border spillovers."
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+ "text": "Ensuring financial stability: Depending on country circumstances, macroprudential tools can be used to tackle pockets of elevated financial sector vulnerabilities. Monitoring housing sector developments and conducting stress tests in economies where house prices have increased significantly over the past few years are warranted. In China, central government action to resolve the property crisis and reduce the risk of spillovers to financial stability and growth is a priority, including by strengthening temporary mechanisms to protect presale homebuyers from the risk of non-delivery and by restructuring troubled developers. Globally, financial sector regulations introduced after the global financial crisis have contributed to the resilience of banking sectors throughout the pandemic, but there is a need to address data and supervisory gaps in the less-regulated nonbank financial sector, where risks may have built up inconspicuously. Recent turmoil in the crypto space also highlights the urgent need to introduce common standards and reinforce oversight of crypto assets."
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+ "text": "Restoring debt sustainability: Lower growth and higher borrowing costs have raised public debt ratios in several economies. Where debt is unsustainable, implementing restructuring or reprofiling early on as part of a package of reforms (including fiscal consolidation and growth-enhancing supply-side reforms) can avert the need for more disruptive adjustment later."
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+ "text": "Supporting the vulnerable: The surge in global energy and food prices triggered a cost-of-living crisis. Governments acted swiftly with support to households and firms, which helped cushion effects on growth and at times limited the pass-through from energy prices to headline inflation through price"
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+ "text": "1 See “Geo-Economic Fragmentation and the Future of Multilateralism,” IMF Staff Discussion Note 2023/001."
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+ "text": "8 International Monetary Fund | January 2023"
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+ "text": "controls. The temporary and broad-based measures are becoming increasingly costly and should be withdrawn and replaced by targeted approaches. Preserving the energy price signal will encourage a reduction in energy consumption and limit the risks of shortages. Targeting can be achieved through social safety nets such as cash transfers to eligible households based on income or demographics or by transfers through electricity companies based on past energy consumption. Subsidies should be temporary and offset by revenue-generating measures, including one-time solidarity taxes on high- income households and companies, where appropriate."
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+ "text": "Reinforcing supply: Supply-side policies could address the key structural factors impeding growth— including market power, rent seeking, rigid regulation and planning, and inefficient education—and could help build resilience, reduce bottlenecks, and alleviate price pressures. A concerted push for investment along the supply chain of green energy technologies would bolster energy security and help advance progress on the green transition."
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+ "text": "Strengthening multilateral cooperation—Urgent action is needed to limit the risks stemming from geopolitical fragmentation and to ensure cooperation on fundamental areas of common interest:"
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+ "text": "e = Restraining the pandemic: Global coordination is needed to resolve bottlenecks in the global distribution of vaccines and treatments. Public support for the development of new vaccine technologies and the design of systematic responses to future epidemics also remains essential."
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+ "text": "distribution of vaccines and treatments. Public support for the development of new vaccine technologies and the design of systematic responses to future epidemics also remains essential. Addressing debt distress: Progress has been made for countries that requested debt treatment under the Group of Twenty’s Common Framework initiative, and more will be needed to strengthen it. It is also necessary to agree on mechanisms to resolve debt in a broader set of economies, including middle-income countries that are not eligible under the Common Framework. Non– Paris Club and private creditors have a crucial role to play in ensuring coordinated, effective, and timely debt resolution processes."
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+ "text": "e — Strengthening global trade: Strengthening the global trading system would address risks associated with trade fragmentation. This can be achieved by rolling back restrictions on food exports and other essential items such as medicine, upgrading World Trade Organization (WTO) rules in critical areas such as agricultural and industrial subsidies, concluding and implementing new WTO-based agreements, and fully restoring the WTO dispute settlement system."
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+ "text": " Using the global financial safety net: With the cascading of shocks to the global economy, using the global financial safety net to its fullest extent is appropriate, including by proactively utilizing the IMF’s precautionary financial arrangements and channeling aid from the international community to low-income countries facing shocks."
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+ "text": "e Speeding the green transition: To meet governments’ climate change goals, it is necessary to swiftly implement credible mitigation policies. International coordination on carbon pricing or equivalent policies would facilitate faster decarbonization. Global cooperation is needed to build resilience to climate shocks, including through aid to vulnerable countries."
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+ "text": "International Monetary Fund | January 2023 9"
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+ "text": "BOX 1. GLOBAL FINANCIAL STABILITY UPDATE"
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+ "text": "Overall, financial stability risks remain elevated as investors reassess their inflation and monetary policy outlook. Global financial conditions have eased somewhat since the October 2022 Global Financial Stability Report, driven largely by changing market expectations regarding the interest rate cycle (Figure 1.1). While the expected peak in policy rates—the terminal rate—has risen, markets now also expect the subsequent fall in rates will be significantly faster, and further, than what was forecast in October (Figure 1.2). As a result, global bond yields have recently declined, corporate spreads have tightened, and equity markets have rebounded. That said, central banks are likely to continue to tighten monetary policy to fight inflation, and concerns that this restrictive stance could tip the economy into a recession have increased in major advanced economies."
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+ "text": "Figure 1.1. Global Financial Conditions: Selected Regions (Standard deviations from mean)"
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+ "text": " 7 United States Qclober 6 Euro area 2022 : —— China GFSR — other AEs 4 other EMs 3 2 1 0 "
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+ "text": "Sources: Bloomberg Finance L.P.; Haver Analytics; national data sources; and IMF staff calculations. Note: AEs = advanced economies; EMs = emerging markets. GFSR = Global Financial Stability Report."
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+ "text": "Slowing aggregate demand and weaker-than-expected inflation prints in some major advanced economies have prompted investors’ anticipation of a further reduction in the pace of future policy rate hikes. Corporate earnings forecasts have been cut due to headwinds from slowing demand, and margins have contracted across most regions. In addition, survey-based probabilities of recession have been increasing, particularly in the United States and Europe. However, upside risks to the inflation outlook remain. Despite the recent moderation in headline inflation, core inflation remains stubbornly high across most regions, labor markets are still tight, energy prices remain pressured by Russia’s ongoing war in Ukraine, and supply chain disruptions may reappear. To keep these risks in check, financial conditions will likely need to tighten further. If not, central banks may need to increase policy rates even more in order to achieve their inflation objectives."
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+ "text": "Figure 1.2. Market-Implied Expectations of Policy Rates (Percent)"
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+ "text": " Latest © —— October 2022 GFSR 6 1. United States 2. Euro area 5 1 1 Oct. Apr. Oct. Dec. Dec. Oct. Apr. Oct. Dec. Dec. 22 23 23 24 26 22 2B 2B 24 2 "
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+ "text": "Given the tension between rising recession risks and monetary policy uncertainty, markets have seen significant volatility. While many central banks in advanced economies have stepped down the size of hikes, they have also explicitly stated they will need to keep rates higher, for a longer period of time, to tamp down inflation. Risk assets could face significant declines if earnings retrench further or if investors reassess their outlook for monetary policy given central bank communications. Globally, the partial reversal of the dollar rally has contributed to recent easing due to improved risk appetite, and some emerging market central banks have paused tightening amid tentative signs that inflation may have peaked."
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+ "text": "Sources: Bloomberg Finance L.P.; and IMF staff calculations. Note: GFSR = Global Financial Stability Report."
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+ "text": "Financial market volatility is expected to remain elevated and could be exacerbated by poor market liquidity. For some asset classes (such as US Treasuries), liquidity has deteriorated to the March 2020 lows of the COVID-19 pandemic. With the process of central bank balance sheet reduction (quantitative tightening) underway, market liquidity is expected to remain challenging."
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+ "text": "10 — International Monetary Fund | January 2023"
+ },
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+ "text": "WEO Update © 2023 • ISBN: 979-8-40023-224-4"
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diff --git a/test_unstructured_ingest/expected-structured-output/s3/small-pdf-set/Silent-Giant-(1).pdf.json b/test_unstructured_ingest/expected-structured-output/s3/small-pdf-set/Silent-Giant-(1).pdf.json
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+ "text": "WORLD NUCLEAR"
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+ "text": "The Silent Giant"
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+ "text": "The need for nuclear in a clean energy system"
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+ "text": "Executive Summary"
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+ "text": "In a world centred on short-term fixes, many of the traits that make nuclear energy a key player in the transition to a sustainable world are not properly valued and often taken for granted. Reflecting on the popular discourse in the world of energy politics it would seem that renewables, and renewables alone, will be responsible for, and capable of, delivering a zero-carbon energy system – and that it is just a matter of time."
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+ "text": "The reality today is that both global carbon dioxide emissions and fossil fuel use are still on the rise. This does not only make the battle against climate change much harder, but also results in hundreds of thousands of pollution deaths every year."
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+ "text": "Energy is the essential agent for promoting human development, and global demand is projected to increase significantly in the coming decades. Securing access to modern and affordable energy is essential for lifting people out of poverty, and for promoting energy independence and economic growth."
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+ "text": "Nuclear energy is a proven solution with a long and well-established track record. Nuclear reactors – a grand total of 445 in 30 countries – are the low-carbon backbone of electricity systems, operating in the background, day in and day out, often out of sight and out of mind. Capable of generating immense amounts of clean power, they are the silent giants upon which we rely daily."
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+ "text": "Nuclear energy has shown – be it in France or Sweden – that it has the potential to be the catalyst for delivering sustainable energy transitions, long before climate change was on the agenda. The use of nuclear energy is the fast track to a high-powered and clean energy system, which not only delivers a healthier environment and an affordable supply of electricity, but also strengthens energy security and helps mitigate climate change."
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+ "text": "The global nuclear industry, led by World Nuclear Association, is ready to take on the challenge. As part of the Harmony Programme, we have set a target to build an additional 1000GWe of reactors across the world before 2050, bringing the global share of electricity production of nuclear to 25%."
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+ "text": "Electricity is central to modern life – it powers our daily lives, as well as our dreams and ambitions. Demand has grown steadily for more than 100 years, and will continue to do so as many parts of the world continue to develop, and electrification takes a central role in efforts to decarbonize (Figure 1). With nearly a billion people around the world still living in the dark, without access to electricity, humanity has a responsibility to learn from the past - everyone has the right to enjoy a modern lifestyle in a way that does not cause harm to people or the planet."
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+ "text": "The challenge before us, however, goes far beyond just electricity – we will need to find ways to decarbonize all parts of the economy, and we need solutions that are sustainable in the long-term. That means changing the way we heat our homes and power our industrial processes, as well as ensuring that the way we travel, export our products and ship our food moves away from fossil fuels."
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+ "text": "Despite the very considerable efforts to decarbonize the economy and the countless billions spent, our world remains heavily addicted to fossil fuels. The trend is clear – instead of reducing our dependence on fossil fuels, we are increasing it (Figure 2). As a direct result, greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise when they need to drastically fall."
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+ "text": "Figure 2. Worldwide electricity generation by fuel (1990-2016)ii"
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+ "text": "We need to deliver a worldwide transformation that is socially, economically and environmentally sustainable. We need a system that is affordable – no one should have to choose between heating their home, and essentials like eating – as well as helping to alleviate poverty, and ensure the realization of human potential globally. We need a power source that can not only help us mitigate the effects of climate change and environmental degradation, but can also help bring the enormous benefits of reliable electricity supply to the corners of the world that do not have access to it."
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+ "text": "Nuclear energy is already making a major contribution. By using nuclear energy rather than fossil fuels, we currently avoid the emission of more than 2500 million tonnes of carbon dioxide every year. To put that into perspective, it is the equivalent of removing about 400 million cars from the world’s roads."
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+ "text": "Modern society is dependent on the steady supply of electricity, every day of the year – regardless of weather, season or time of day – and nuclear energy is particularly well-suited to providing this service. Given that the majority of baseload supply is fossil-based, an increase in the use of nuclear energy would result in a rapid decarbonization of the electricity system. The International Energy Agency’s (IEA) recent report III on nuclear energy highlighted the importance of dependable baseload electricity generators and the need to properly value and compensate them for the electricity security and reliability services they provide."
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+ "text": "Despite impressive recent growth, the stark reality is that renewables alone will not be able to resolve our dependence on fossil fuels. Clearly, the sun does not always shine, and the wind does not always blow, and this is compounded by the fact that many times these periods coincide with when electricity demand is at its highest, but renewables can be complementary to nuclear energy. Storage solutions, such as batteries, will not be able to power our societies for days or weeks when the weather is not favourable. Natural gas is currently the most used solution for the intermittency problem, which only serves to reinforce our economy’s dependence of fossil fuels, and severely undermines the apparently ‘green credentials’ of many renewables."
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+ "text": "The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) special report on Global Warming of 1.5°C iv examined a large number of different scenarios for limiting global warming to 1.5°C. Of those scenarios which would achieve the 1.5°C target, the mean increase in nuclear energy’s contribution to electricity production was 2.5 times higher compared to today. However, the ‘middle-of-the-road’ scenario – in which social, economic, and technological trends follow current patterns and would not require major changes to, for example, diet and travel habits – sees the need for nuclear increase by five times globally by 2050."
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+ "text": "The IEA has concluded that without an expanded contribution from nuclear energy, the already huge challenge of achieving emissions reductions will become drastically harder and more costly. In their latest report on nuclear energy v, published in 2019, they also conclude that not using nuclear would have negative implications for energy security and result in higher costs for the consumers. The IEA recommends policy reforms to ‘… ensure competition on a level playing field’ and that the ‘… focus should be on designing electricity markets in a way that values the clean energy and energy security attributes of low-carbon technologies, including nuclear power.’ Such reforms should also ensure that reliability of electricity production is properly valued and compensated."
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+ "text": "As part of the Harmony Programme, the world’s nuclear industry has identified three key policy areas for action to unlock the true potential of nuclear energy - the need for a level playing field, the harmonization of regulations and the establishment of an effective safety paradigm."
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+ "text": "In regard to the need for a level playing field, we see that many of the world’s electricity markets operate in an unsustainable fashion, dominated by short-term thinking. Electricity supply which is affordable, reliable and available 24/7 generates broad societal benefits, and as seen in Figure 3, nuclear is one of the most affordable electricity sources."
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+ "text": "However, markets fail to give due credit to electricity generators, such as nuclear energy, that are able to meet these societal demands. This has resulted in situations where nuclear energy has struggled to compete with energy sources that have been subsidized, do not pay the hidden costs brought on by their intermittency (e.g. costly backup provisions and investments in the grid), or do not have to take responsibility for using our common atmosphere as a dumping ground."
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+ "text": "Additionally, electricity markets fail to recognize the relative costs of different forms of electricity generation. Whilst the nuclear industry takes responsibility for its lifecycle costs (including decommissioning and waste management), other electricity generators do not. Fossil fuel generators are rarely required to pay the price in line with the environmental and health damage that their emissions cause, whilst the cost of wind and solar does not include the disposal of the sometimes toxic materials at the end of their life."
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+ "text": "In regard to the need to harmonize regulations, multiple regulatory barriers stemming from diverse national licensing processes and safety requirements currently limit global nuclear trade and investment. A lack of international standardization places unnecessary regulatory burdens on nuclear activities and causes delays in the licensing of new designs, hindering innovation."
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+ "text": "The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has highlighted the importance of addressing this issue, concluding that the lack of regulatory harmony ‘…causes many drawbacks for the entire nuclear industry, including developers, vendors, operators and even regulators themselves…This results in increased costs and reduced predictability in project execution’. vii It is therefore crucial that we harmonize the regulatory process to address these weaknesses, and avoid unnecessary duplication and inconsistencies."
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+ "text": "Nuclear energy is already making a significant contribution to providing the world with clean and abundant electricity, and has a proven track record of being a reliable workhorse around the world. Countries like France, Sweden and Switzerland have proven that it is possible to divorce economic growth from an increase in damaging emissions and over the timescales required to effectively challenge climate change and environmental degradation (Figures 5 and 6). Nuclear can ensure that fast-growing populations achieve rising standards of living – without having to sacrifice the planet or their own well-being."
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+ "text": "Figure 5. The importance of nuclear in ensuring clean energy systems in France, Sweden and Switzerland ix"
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+ "text": " BB Non-hydro 500 i ren. & waste 400 z= Nuclear Natural gas 300 y -— EB Hydro i oil 200 —— -— BB Coal 100"
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+ "text": "1974 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2017"
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+ "text": "Figure 6. The lasting decarbonization of French electricity and nuclear’s ability to meet growing demand x"
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+ "text": "The incredible energy density of uranium means that just a few kilos is all that is required to provide one person with enough power for a lifetime. Uranium is abundant and can be found in many parts of the world, as well as in seawater. Furthermore, spent nuclear fuel is well managed and can in most cases be recycled to produce even more power. By using nuclear energy, countries are able to take charge of their own destinies by decreasing their reliance on imported energy – enhanced independence and security in uncertain times."
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+ "text": "One fuel pellet contains as much energy as a tonne of coal"
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+ "text": "Unlike other power sources, nuclear energy helps us reduce our total footprint, going beyond just the environment. When accounting for factors such as cost (e.g. fuel and construction costs), carbon (lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions), water and land footprints, nuclear is far ahead of all other energy generators."
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+ "text": "Nuclear energy offers a multitude of services beyond just electricity. With nuclear, we can decarbonize the way we heat our homes, provide process heat for industry, and ensure access to clean water. As freshwater supplies come under increasing pressure worldwide, nuclear reactors can provide desalination, ensuring a reliable flow of fresh drinking water in areas where it is scarce."
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+ "text": "Nuclear energy can be relied upon to power the new mobility revolution taking place. Every day, we use almost 20 million barrels of oil to power our vehicles. By swapping to an electric or hydrogen-powered transport fleet – all powered by the atom – we are able to address one of the key challenges to a sustainable economy."
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+ "text": "We cannot afford to wait – we need every part of the puzzle to contribute towards solving some of the greatest challenges faced by humankind in a very long time. The impacts of climate change will hit the poorest and most vulnerable first, and failing to act will have significant humanitarian consequences."
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+ "text": "Nuclear power is the silent giant of today’s energy system – it runs quietly in the background, capable of delivering immense amounts of power, regardless of weather or season, allowing us to focus on everything else in life. It is a technology that is available now, and can be expanded quickly across the world to help us solve some of the most defining challenges we face. Nuclear energy holds the potential to herald a new, cleaner and truly sustainable world – enabling us to pass on a cleaner planet to our children."
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+ "text": "International Energy Agency (2018), World Energy Outlook 2018. Data accessed from https://www.iea.org/weo/ – Based on the New Policies Scenario, which incorporates existing energy policies as well as an assessment of the results likely to stem from the implementation of announced policy intentions – with visual modification by World Nuclear Association. International Energy Agency (n.d.), Statistics. Accessed from: https://www.iea.org/statistics/?country=WORLD&year=2016&category=Electricity&indicator=ElecGenByFuel&mode =chart&dataTable=ELECTRICITYANDHEAT – with visual modifications by World Nuclear Association. International Energy Agency (2019), Nuclear Power in a Clean Energy System. Accessed from: https://www.iea.org/ publications/nuclear/ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2018), Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C. Accessed from: https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/ International Energy Agency (2019), Nuclear Power in a Clean Energy System. Accessed from: https://www.iea.org/ publications/nuclear/ International Energy Agency & OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (2015), Projected Costs of generating Electricity – 2015 Edition. Accessed from: https://www.oecd-nea.org/ndd/pubs/2015/7057-proj-costs-electricity-2015.pdf International Atomic Energy Agency (2015), Technical challenges in the application and licensing of digital instrumentation and control systems in nuclear power plants. Accessed from: https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/ Publications/PDF/P1695_web.pdf"
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+ "text": "and NRC SOARCA study 2015 Paul-Scherrer Institute. Data for nuclear accidents modified to reflect UNSCEAR findings/recommendations (2012)"
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+ "text": "and NRC SOARCA study 2015 International Energy Agency (2018), Electricity Information 2018 https://webstore.iea.org/electricity-information-2018-overview Ibid."
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+ "text": "Photo credits: Front cover: Mike Baird; page 2: Vattenfall; page 4: Getty Images; page 5: Adobe Stock; page 6: Rosatom; page 8: Dean Calma, IAEA; page 10: Kazatomprom; page 11: EDF."
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+ "text": "Nuclear energy is crucial to meeting the world’s ever-increasing demand for energy, thanks to its ability to supply affordable, reliable, and sustainable electricity and heat. Despite the many benefits of nuclear energy, its deployment is hindered in some parts of the world due to long-standing misconceptions about its risks. Even with its safety record – unmatched by any other energy source – the perception of nuclear power as uniquely dangerous endures."
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+ "text": "It is widely accepted that humans have skewed perceptions of risks, and the way we respond to them is shaped by these perceptions, rather than the actual threats posed. Approximately 1.35 millioni people die every year because of traffic accidents, in comparison with 257 aviation fatalities in 2019ii, yet more people are nervous about flying, fearing a rare deadly crash, than being in a fatal traffic accident. These numbers tell a powerful and well-established story: evaluations of risk are largely the result of emotions, rather than logic or facts. Although it is hard to recognize and accept that our perceptions may mislead us and curtail effective decision making, this is a well-established characteristic of humanity."
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+ "text": "Nuclear energy and the risk of radiation is one of the most extreme cases in which perceived and actual risks have diverged. The fear of radiation, whilst pre- dating the Second World War, was firmly established by the debate on the potential impacts of low-dose radiation from the fallout from nuclear weapons testing in the early years of the Cold War. Radiation in many ways became linked with the mental imagery of nuclear war, playing an important role in increasing public concern about radiation and its health effects. There is a well-established discrepancy between fact-based risk assessments and public perception of different risks. This is very much the case with nuclear power, and this is clearly highlighted in Figure 1, with laypersons ranking nuclear power as the highest risk out of 30 activities and technologies, with experts ranking nuclear as 20th. In many ways, popular culture’s depiction of radiation has played a role in ensuring that this discrepancy has remained, be it Godzilla, The Incredible Hulk, or The Simpsons, which regularly plays on the notion of radiation from nuclear power plants causing three-eyed fish, something that has been firmly rejected as unscientific."
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+ "text": "a t a F"
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+ "text": "Natural Artificial @ 48% Radon @ 11% Medicine @ 14% Buildings & soil @ 0.4% = Fallout @ 12% Food & water @ 0.4% Miscellaneous @ 10% Cosmic @ 0.2% Occupational @ 4% = Thoron @ 0.04% Nuclear discharges "
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+ "text": "Figure 2. Global average exposure from different sources of radiation"
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+ "text": "Fossil fuels – currently accounting for around 81% of total energy supplyiv – cause significant levels of emissions in terms of both greenhouse gases and air pollutants. Despite the serious and ongoing health and environmental harms caused by air pollution, it is often considered to be an inevitable consequence of economic development. Air pollution’s contribution to the burden of disease is profound, with an estimated 8.7 million people dying worldwide prematurely in 2018 alonev,vi. Despite this, it fails to induce the same fears and anxieties in people as nuclear energy does."
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+ "text": "In terms of accidents, hydropower is the deadliest electricity generator, mostly due to collapsing dams and the consequences of flooding. The Banqiao Dam failure in 1975 led to at least 26,000 people drowning, and as many as 150,000 deaths resulting from the secondary effects of the accident. In comparison, radiation exposure following Chernobyl caused 54 deaths2, while no casualties due to radiation are likely to occur from the accident at Fukushima Daiichi."
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+ "text": " 05 24.6 20 18.4 S15 10 46 28 5 || 0.07 0.04 0.02 0.01 > SS I ~— ~— es ° & Se es oe oe & ro se s& e as"
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+ "text": "Figure 3. Comparison of number of fatalities due to electricity generation, including accidents and air pollution3"
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+ "text": "Contrary to perceptions, nuclear is an incredibly safe source of energy (see Figure 3 for a comparison). What is also clear is that the continued use of alternative energy sources in preference to nuclear energy – in particular fossil fuels – poses a far greater risk to public health by significantly contributing to climate change and air pollution."
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+ "text": "2 Including 28 firefighters that were exposed to lethal amounts of radiation during the accident night, and 15 fatal cases of thyroid cancer. 3 Sources drawn upon: Markandya, A., & Wilkinson, P. (2007), Sovacool et al. (2016). Data for nuclear accidents modified to reflect the"
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+ "text": "$ Sources drawn upon: Markandya, A., & Wilkinson, P. (2007), Sovacool et al. (2016). Data for nuclear accidents modified to reflect the 2012 UNSCEAR report and the 2015 US NRC SOARCA study."
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+ "text": "The low-dose question"
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+ "text": "Since the 1950s, the Linear No-Threshold (LNT) theory has been used to inform regulatory decisions, positing that any dose of radiation, regardless of the amount or the duration over which it is received, poses a risk. Assuming that LNT is correct, we should expect to see that people living in areas of the world where background doses are higher (e.g. India, Iran and northern Europe) have a higher incidence of cancer. However, despite people living in areas of the world where radiation doses are naturally higher than those that would be received in parts of the evacuation zones around Chernobyl and Fukushima Daiichi, there is no evidence that these populations exhibit any negative health effects. Living nearby a nuclear power plant on average exposes the local population to 0.00009mSv/year, which according to LNT would increase the risk of developing cancer by 0.00000045%. After Chernobyl, the average dose to those evacuated was 30mSv, which would theoretically increase the risk of cancer at some point in their lifetime by 0.15% (on top of the average baseline lifetime risk of cancer, which is 39.5% in the USviii, 50% in the UKix)."
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+ "text": "Since the 1980s, there has been considerable scientific debate as to whether the LNT theory is valid, following scientific breakthroughs within, for example, radiobiology and medicine. Indeed, the Chernobyl accident helped illuminate some of the issues associated with LNT. Multiplication of the low doses after the accident (many far too low to be of any health concern) with large populations – using the assumptions made by LNT – led to a large number of predicted cancer deaths, which have not, and likely will not materialize. This practice has been heavily criticized for being inappropriate in making risk assessments by UNSCEAR, the International Commission on Radiation Protection and a large number of independent scientists."
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+ "text": "Determining the precise risk (or lack thereof) of the extremely small radiation doses associated with the routine operations of nuclear power plants, the disposal of nuclear waste or even extremely rare nuclear accidents is a purely academic exercise, that tries to determine whether the risk is extremely low, too small to detect, or non- existent. The risks of low-level radiation pale in comparison to other societal risks such as obesity, smoking, and air pollution."
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+ "text": "By looking at radiation risks in isolation, we prolong the over-regulation of radiation in nuclear plants, driving up costs, whilst not delivering any additional health benefits, in turn incentivising the use of more harmful energy sources. A recalibration is required, and this can only done by ensuring a holistic approach to risk is taken."
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+ "text": "Adopting an all-hazards approach"
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+ "text": "Contemporary debates around nuclear energy often reflect the precautionary principle, a problematic concept applied across a range of regulatory and policy issues. A ‘strong’ interpretation of the precautionary principle, or a ‘as low as possible’ approach to risk, dictates that regulation is required whenever there is a potential adverse health risk, even if the evidence is not certain and regardless of the cost of regulation."
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+ "text": "The overall regulatory philosophy, at least theoretically, used in the nuclear industry is the ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) principle, where any regulatory action on radiation should account for socio- economic benefits and costs, as opposed to making decisions based on radiation risks alone."
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+ "text": "However, the regulatory process and the policy debate around nuclear more broadly has long departed from the ALARA principle, no longer weighing cost versus benefits, or considering the overall advantages of nuclear energy, but rather looking at radiation in isolation. This has resulted in a subtle shift towards an ‘as low as possible’ mentality. Attempting to reduce radiation far below de facto safe levels has resulted in an escalation of costs and loss of public confidence, and in some cases has deprived communities of the many benefits nuclear energy provides. In practical terms, this has led to the continued use of more harmful energy sources, such as fossil fuels."
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+ "text": "If the potential of nuclear energy is to be fully realized, public health and safety approaches must be recalibrated to consider a wider range of factors when considering radiation, adopting an “all-hazards” approach. Such an approach must ensure that risks are placed within a proper perspective and context, rather than looking at them in isolation. We therefore must not look at the costs – be they economic, environmental, or public health – associated with an individual power plant in isolation, but rather the costs associated with it (and its alternatives) at a societal level (Figure 4). This would entail looking at the potential risks arising from the use of nuclear power and comparing these with the risks associated with not adopting nuclear power."
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+ "text": "ae) Plant-level Social and flea productio Grid-level costs environmental costs of at market pri of the electricity emissions, land-use, system climate change, security of supply, etc. "
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+ "text": "Figure 4. The different levels of cost associated with electricity generationx"
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+ "text": "A more holistic regulatory process would be required, in which regulators move away from being siloed, looking at specific risks in isolation, with little regard for the greater picture. The move towards an all-hazard, holistic approach would require greater coordination between regulators, ensuring that the combined risks of a specific nuclear project are weighed against the risks posed by not advancing said project."
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+ "text": "Equally, the adoption of an all-hazards approach means regulators should consider declaring when a risk is too low to be a public health concern, in line with what the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission attempted to do with its Below Regulatory Concern policy statements in the 1980s and early 1990s. In the context of nuclear power, this means departing from the notion that LNT instils of no safe level of radiation, and adopting a regulatory framework which notes the impossibility of eradicating risks. Failing to do so will result in excessive regulation that continues to limit the full potential of nuclear power in tackling climate change and sees a continued reliance on objectively more harmful energy sources."
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+ "text": "By looking at radiation risks in isolation, we have created something akin to a “radiation phobia”, that both directly and indirectly harms people around the world. For instance, it is well established that the vast majority of health impacts from Chernobyl and Fukushima Daiichi were not radiological, but rather psychosocial. There has been an observable and dramatic increase in depression, PTSD, substance abuse, and suicides following these events, which can be significantly attributed to the dissonance between the actual and perceived risks of radiation, and the stigmatization they caused."
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+ "text": "Similarly, many of the tremendous challenges the global community faces are significantly driven by this “radiation phobia”. Indeed, several of these issues have been considerably exacerbated by the fact that certain risks are given a disproportionate amount of focus, whereas others are de facto ignored. The global conversation around climate change is a prime example of this. The historical use of fossil fuels has contributed significantly to climate change through greenhouse gas emissions, causing unprecedented changes in the liveability of the Earth. By 2025, half of the world’s population will be living in water-stressed areas, as extreme heat and droughts are exacerbating water resources. Between 2030 and 2050, climate change is expected to be the cause of an additional 250,000 deaths per year, arising from malnutrition, malaria, diarrhoea and heat stressx. Yet, despite the huge risks associated with climate change, our addiction to coal, oil, and fossil gas remains, with fossil fuels providing 84% of global primary energy in 2019xii. The continued prioritization of fossil fuels at the expense of nuclear energy results in a considerable increase in the risks posed by climate change."
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+ "text": "Equally, it is well established that living without access to electricity results in illness and death around the world, caused by everything from not having access to modern healthcare to household air pollution. As of today, 770 million people around the world do not have access to electricity, with over 75% of that population living in Sub-Saharan Africa. The world's poorest 4 billion people consume a mere 5% of the energy used in developed economies, and we need to find ways of delivering reliable electricity to the entire human population in a fashion that is sustainable. Household and ambient air pollution causes 8.7 million deaths each year, largely because of the continued use of fossil fuels. Widespread electrification is a key tool for delivering a just energy transition. Investment in nuclear, has become an urgent necessity. Discarding it, based on risk perceptions divorced from science, would be to abandon the moral obligation to ensure affordable, reliable, and sustainable energy for every community around the world."
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+ "text": "Clearly, we have reached a point where we must establish a new conversation about the relative risks of using nuclear, especially when risks created by other energy sources are considered. We cannot address many of the global challenges we face without a significant increase in the use of nuclear energy. The detrimental effects of decades of looking at nuclear risks in isolation highlights just how crucial it is that regulators and policymakers change the way they view nuclear energy, and transition towards an all-hazards approach, ensuring that actions taken to mitigate risks do not result in creating more severe risks."
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+ "text": "We must begin to holistically look at the severity of the consequences of maintaining the current energy production system, many of which are irreversible. The ways in which we address climate change and other issues of global importance must be sustainable and not create new hazards down the line. The reality is that nuclear has always been and remains an exceptionally safe source of energy, representing the lowest risk, the most sustainable, and the most affordable ways to generate around-the-clock electricity."
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+ "text": "Therefore, World Nuclear Association calls upon policymakers and regulators to adopt an all-hazards approach, where different risks associated with energy producing technologies are placed in perspective and the appropriate context, and examined in line with the latest scientific evidence. Policymakers and regulators must ensure that their decisions regarding radiation protection do not create greater risks elsewhere. This include the recalibration of existing regulations regarding nuclear power and radiation, weighing the cost of regulatory measures against the societal benefits provided by nuclear energy."
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+ "text": "World Health Organization (2020). Road traffic injuries. Available at: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/ detail/road-traffic-injuries"
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+ "text": "BBC (2020). Plane crash fatalities fell more than 50% in 2019. Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/ business-50953712"
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+ "text": "Slovic, P., 2010. The Psychology of risk. Saúde e Sociedade, 19(4), pp. 731-747."
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+ "text": "United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Radiation (2016). Report of the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. Accessed from: https:/Avww.unscear.org/docs/publications/2016/ UNSCEAR_2016_GA-Report-CORR.pdf"
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+ "text": "International Energy Agency (2020). Global share of total energy supply by source, 2018. Key World Energy Statistics 2020. Available at: https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/global-share-of-total-energy-supply-by- source-2018"
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+ "text": "Vohra, K., Vodonos, A., Schwartz, J., Marais, E., Sulprizio, M., & Mickley, L. (2021). Global mortality from outdoor fine particle pollution generated by fossil fuel combustion: Results from GEOS-Chem. Environmental Research, 195, p. 1-8"
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+ "text": "VIL World Health Organization. (2016). Updated tables 2016 for ‘Preventing disease through health environments: a global assessment of the burden of disease from environmental risks’. Available at: https://www.who.int/data/gho/ data/themes/public-health-and-environment [Accessed on 8 April 2021]"
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+ "text": "National Cancer Institute (2020). Cancer statistics. Available at: https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/ understanding/statistics"
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+ "text": "Cancer Research UK (n.d.). Cancer risk statistics. Available at: https:/Awww.cancerresearchuk.org/health- professional/cancer-statistics/risk"
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+ "text": "OECD-NEA (2019). The Full Costs of Electricity Provision. Available at: https:/Avww.oecd-nea.org/jcms/pl_14998/ the-full-costs-of-electricity-provision?details=true"
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