New or Changed Features

New or Changed Features

This page provides a quick overview of added or changed features and when they have been introduced.

March 26, Rel. 500

• a [Char] is now printed as string, like in Haskell.

• forkIO and forkOS are different now. The former submits a task in a fixed size thread pool executor which is provided by the runtime. The latter, as before, creates an OS thread.

• In IDE mode, compiler will replace unresolved variables with undefined, and will continue working, up to and including type check. This makes it probable that unrelated code (and in many cases also code near the error, as undefined shouldn't introduce type errors) can still get typechecked, and IDE features like content assist will be able to do better work.

• Syntactic sugar: _.foobar desugars to (\it -> it.fooBar). This will typecheck if and only if: the argument type of the lambda is not a type variable and the type of the argument has a foobar function or foobar is a class operation. A successful type check will rewrite the lambda like (\it -> T.fooBar it), where T is the type constructor of the type of it. Later, a simplifying compiler pass will un-eta-expand the lambda, and the result is just T.fooBar. This way, we can TDNR a function even if we have no actual syntactic argument it is applied to! This comes in handy in point free or monadic context:

  letters = packed . filter _.isLetter . unpacked
  foolines sss = openReader sss >>= _.getLines >>= return .  any (flip _.startsWith "foo")
  

The first example filters the letters of a string. The second one tells if a named file contains lines that start with "foo". Apart form saving a few keystrokes, the _.foobar notation is immune against changes of the type name. Also, you do not even have to be able to name the type taht contains foobar.

• Access to characters in strings doesn't work anymore with syntax str.[index]. Use charAt. The syntactic sugar is only valid for arrays.

March 1, 2014: Spring '14 Release

• Quickcheck 2.6 ported from Haskell

• Quick, a tool to run Quickcheck properties of a module, or several modules. (If you try this on the fregec.jar, there will be 2 failing tests. No worries!)

• better documentation, especially for overloaded native functions

• native array support via JArray

• better Unicode support in the scanner, who used to ignore surrogate pairs. Also, everything that is not explicitly uppercase is treated as lowercase, as far as Frege is concerned. This means, you can now write variable names in scripts that do not have case (like Devanagari). Caveat: the scanner still does not recognize glyphs, that is, if I have a german keyboard, I can enter ä and it will be U+00E4 LATIN SMALL LETTER A WITH DIAERESIS, which is a letter and hence acceptable in identifiers, but if one enters the canonical decomposition ä U+0061 LATIN SMALL LETTER A + U+0308 COMBINING DIAERESIS it won't be recognized as identifier part, becasue the scanner still operates on single unicode points, and the diaresis is not a letter, but a non-spacing mark. Arguably, improvements are possible here.

• Regex literals also are more Unicode-ish, they are being compiled with UNICODE_CASE; CANON_EQ and UNICODE_CHARACTER_CLASS flags.

• fixed a bunch of issues

• made the compiled code faster (and, unfortunately, at the same time bigger)

• added a head-strict cons operator (!:). This means that in x+3 !: ys, for example, x+3 is evaluated right away, while ys is still lazy. List comprehension uses this, which often results in better code with less laziness overhead. If one needs to allow for undefined elements in the list, one must use map or the list monad.

• the type unsafe special native return type [a] is no longer recognized. Use JArray to tell Frege that a Java method returns an array.

• cleaned up the handling of let bound functions. Until now, local functions that did not reference any local name from their outer scope were silently moved to the top level. This often resulted in more general types, though this is seldom necessary. From now on, if you want your local function to have a polymorphic type, you need to annotate it or write it as top level function right away. Unannotated let bound functions are thus never generalised by the type checker, which brings more consistency and often better code. Still, if the function doesn't use local variables from the enclosing scope, it might get moved to the top level so as to avoid inner classes. This is now also documented in the language reference and the "Differences to Haskell".

• main can now have type IO a or [String] -> IO a for some type a. If a is not (), you need to annotate it, though. If the frege main function returns IO Int or IO Bool and if it is run through the supplied static void main(String args) java method (i.e. as command line application), the returned value will be used to determine the exit status, where 0 or true signal success. If main is not annotated and doesn't look like a function, it is assumed to be IO (). Otherwise, if it has arguments, [String] -> IO () is assumed, as before.

• implemented several convenience functions of Haskell heritage: on, interact, readFile, writeFile, appendFile, getContents and, as substitute for Haskell's hGetContent we have getContentsOf which operates on a Reader.

• improved type directed name resolution (TDNR). This means, that expressions of the form x.m where x is an expression and m is an identifier, will always (I hope!) be typeable, whenever the type of x can be determined at all. The non-globalised lets contribute here because there is more code where the type of x may get disclosed, but the algorithm I used up to now also had a flaw that prevented proper typing in some cases. The better TDNR also applies to the other syntactic forms that trigger it: x.{m?} x.{m=v} and x.{m<-f}

November 8, 2013: 165th Birthday Release

• Liberalized type synonyms

We can now write:

type Discard a = forall b. Show b => a -> b -> (a, String)

August 8, 2013: Summer release 3.21.190

• flexibly typed numeric literals

One can now write, for example

recip x = 1/x

and it will be typed Double -> Double. See examples/NumericLiterals.fr for rules and examples.

• Quick check command line tool to check properties of already compiled modules, try

  java -cp fregec.jar frege.tools.Quick

• bug fixes

• slight performance enhancements

local values are not inlined when marked strict inlining of the remaining ones works now better annotated local values get globalized, when they are constants

February 28, 2013: Reworked design for native data and functions.

• Mutable native data/impure native functions:

As of version 3.21.107, older code dealing with mutable native data will probably cease to work. (Yet, the changes needed to get it working again are usually small, and should be confined to native declarations.)

The new design has been applied to all library stuff. For explanations, please see the latest language reference, chapter 8.2.

• Operators can now be qualified like everything else

It used to be so that qualified operators lost their syntactic magic. This has been fixed.

• Standard I/O

There are now 3 predefined input/output channels available in each program: stdin, stdout and stderr These are really BufferedReader (for stdin) and PrintWriters (for stdout and stderr) wrapped around the streams in java.lang.System.in, .out and .err.

The standard channels provide UTF-8 decoding/encoding, no matter what Java thinks the standard encoding should be. The print writers have the autoflush option set.

The following functions are available that operate on stdout: print, println, putChar, putStr, putStrLn.

The following functions are availabe that operate on stdin: getChar, getLine

There are two functions for dealing with files:

openReader :: String -> IO BufferedReader
openWriter :: String -> IO PrintWriter

Buffered readers support: read, readLine, getChar, getLine, getLines

The read functions return special values like -1 or Nothing on end of file, while the getChar and getLine functions throw EOFException.

Print writers support: print, println (unlike Prelude.print, they take strings, not instances of Show), putChar and write.

February 10, 2013: Overloaded native functions

It is now possible to deal with overloaded java methods or constructors by simply declaring multiple types for their Frege counterparts:

data Writer = native java.io.Writer where
    native write :: Writer -> Int -> IO () throws IOException
                 |  Writer -> String -> IO () throws IOException
                 |  Writer -> String -> Int -> Int -> IO () throws IOException

In the type checker, the left-right bias for constructs like x.m has been removed. This used to type check only if the type of x was known before the type checker hit the expression. Now, resolution will succeed if the type of x is known in the surrounding function at all.

February 3, 2013: Exception Handling

Exception handling has been re-worked, as will be described in the upcoming overhauled language spec. In short:

• Native functions can now catch different exceptions

This enhances the catch-all approach taken up to now. The exceptions are encoded in an Either type as before, but if there is more than one exception, the left part of the Either type will be another Either, like

Either (Either (Either Ex1 Ex2) Ex3) Result

This either catches one of the exceptions Ex1 , Ex2 or Ex3 , or returns a result of type Result A bit syntactic sugar helps with such complex types: Firstly, the notation

(Ex1|Ex2|Ex3|Result)

is equivalent to the above type, in fact, every Either type can be written (a|b) The vertical bar acts like a left associative operator hence (a|b|c) = ((a|b)|c) Second, the function either is now itself left associative, and there is the nice property that one can deconstruct a nested Either value whose type is (a|b|c) with

(fa `either` fb `either` fc) value

Take the type, replace each vertical bar with an infix either and each sub-type with a function that takes this type and apply this to the value to get deconstructed! This works for any nesting depth.

• Exception handling in the ST/IO Monad

Native impure functions can now have throws clauses, where the thrown exception types can be listed. An exception type is an immutable abstract type based on some java exception, like:

data IOException = pure native java.io.IOException
derive Exceptional IOException

Support for exception handling is in module frege.prelude.PreludeIO with functions catch finally try and throwST (these functions are available by default). This works now like described in detail in the upcoming language spec.

January 21, 2013: Arithmetic Sequences

We now have the functions enumFrom, enumFromThen , enumFromTo , enumFromThenTo in class Enum , and arithmetic sequences are syntactically supported.

All forms of arithmetic sequences of trivial types like () produce a singleton list where the list element is the only possible value of that type.

Float and Double do not have instances for Enum , hence there are no floating point arithmetic sequences. (Though there is nothing that prevents one from rolling one's own.)

Available from 3.21.33-g5e7b72f

January 8, 2013: New runtime system, minor library changes, strict/non-strict fields in constructors

The new runtime system is more othogonal than the previous one, and allows faster code generation. Unless you want to call frege code from java, it is of no concern. Except that now native methods that are declared to return lists are expected to return arrays or Iterables, and the result is converted to a frege list no matter what the element type of the list is. The data in the java array/Iterable must of course be assignment-compatible with the given element type.

In the course of sweeping up, the package frege.rt is gone, and has been replaced by frege.runtime. Also, there are no more java classes frege.RT and frege.MD, the corresponging code is now in frege.runtime.Runtime and frege.runtime.Meta.

Likewise, the frege modules frege.j. have moved to frege.java.. The module frege.IO is considered deprecated and will be removed in the near future. All Java SE stuff can be imported henceforth from frege.java.Xyz where Xyz is the capitalized last component of the Java package name.

Until now it was possible to state that all fields of a data constructor should be strict, like in:

data Foo = !Bar {field1::X, field2::Y}

From now on, this syntax is considered deprecated (yet it will continue to work for a while). Instead, individual fields can now be marked strict:

data Foo = Bar {!field1::X, !field2::Y}  -- new syntax for the above

This makes it possible to have strict as well as non-strict fields in one constructor.

Last but not least, the version number now contains the first 7 digits of the commit SHA, so that it may be easier to look up what changes went in a given version. For example, the version 3.21.8-geeec484 corresponds to eeec484d18724617e4baf0cab4206ac3a03fff21.

October 31, 2012: Type checker aware of Java sub/superclass relationships, support for returned arrays and Iterables

Up to now, the type checker checked native types just like any other frege type. Very much simplified this boils down to check whether type constructors match.

From now on, if two native types are matched, the type checker considers it ok if the java type associated with the expected type is a super class or super interface of the one associated with the inferred type.

In addition, if we have x.m and the type of x is some T ... and T is a native type, all known namespaces of types that are associated with the java type that is associated with Tare searched for m.

Here is a short example:

package frege.java.Net where

data URL s = native java.net.URL where
    native new              :: String -> IO (Exception (URL Immutable))
    native openStream       :: URL Immutable -> IO (Exception (InputStream RealWorld))
    -- more methods ommitted

protected data InputStream a  = native java.io.InputStream

This defines the URL type. The return type of openStream is InputStream. Another file contains this:

package frege.java.IO where

--- The normal form of an InputStream -- 'RealWorld' (mutated by IO actions)
type InputStream = InputStreamT RealWorld
type Closeable   = CloseableT   RealWorld

--- frege equivalent of @java.io.InputStream@
data InputStreamT s = native java.io.InputStream where
    native read  :: InputStream -> IO (Exception Int)
    -- more methods ommitted

--- frege equivalent of @java.io.Closeable@    
data CloseableT s = native java.io.Closeable where    
    native close :: Closeable -> IO (Exception ())

Here, we have a more detailed definition of InputStream. Now we can use this like so:

import Java.Net
import Java.IO

main _ = do
    url  <- URL.new "http://www.google.com" >>= either throw return
    ios  <- url.openStream                  >>= either throw return
    byte <- ios.read                        >>= either throw println
    ios.close 
    return ()

The variable ios has type Net.InputStream RealWorld, but because the type constructor is associated with java.io.InputStream also IO.InputStreamT is searched for method read, which is found there.

This method expects a IO.InputStreamT RealWorld but the different type constructor is ok, because it is also associated with java.io.InputStream.

The same mechanism works with super-classes and super-interfaces. The expression ios.close looks for close in all types that are associated with any known super-class or super-interface of java.io.InputStream, and since the latter implements java.io.Closable it is found there. The rewritten expression ClosableT.close ios type checks, because the inferred type for ios, namely Net.InputStreamdenotes a java type that is a subtype of the java type that is associated with the expected type ClosableT RealWorld.

This sounds more difficult than it is. In reality, the Frege compiler does some reflection on all java types it learns from the program text or imported packages and tries to do what one expects anyway.

This gives us the opportunity to more easily interface with Java. We don't need to model the class hierarchy anymore with Frege type classes. Rather, we just name the classes and methods we're interested in. In addition, we should never face the situation where we want to import package java.A from java.B, while at the same time we need to import java.B from java.A. We can just use simple "forward" declarations (like the one for InputStream in frege.java.Net) in java.A for all java types introduced in java.B and vice versa.

Another change is that a native method whose declared return type is [R] where R is a type associated with a Java reference type J, will be good for corresponding java methods that return a J[] or an Iterable<J>. In both cases the result is converted to a list. If the method returns null this will result in an empty list. Any null values in the array or the Iterable are skipped. The conversion is strict in the case of arrays, but lazy with Iterable. The latter is because we can traverse the Iterable only once. Hence the list would come out in reverse order if we created it all at once.

The changes will be available from version 3.20.42 on, this corresponds to commit 24d21431.

October 11, 2012: Single . can act as function composition operator

To further enhance Haskell compatibility, the token . will be regarded as if it was • if (at least) one of the following conditions holds:

1. The token preceeding . is (
2. The token following . is )
3. The tokens on both side of . are separated by whitespace.

Note that we speak here about the token . not about the character. Hence, the dots in qualified names and multi-character operators like .. are not affected.

Here is an example:

x = (.) f g    -- by rules 1 and 2 same as (•) f g
x = (f.) g     -- by rule 2        same as (f•) g
x = (.g) f     -- by rule 1        same as (•g) f
x = f . g      -- by rule 3        same as f • g

Note that it is not possible to mention a single . in an infix declaration. This would be like saying: We have 3 planets between sun and earth: merkur, the morning star and the evening star.

It is possible that this change breaks existing code. Yet, in the some 30.000 lines of the frege system there was only 1 instance where this happened. Hence, it looks like the benefits outweigh the possible harm.

May 2012: Instances for function types fully supported

There are no restrictions anymore regarding function instances. All of the following can be used now:

instance C1 (->)
instance C2 (->) a   -- sorry, not (a ->)
instance C3 (a -> b) -- or, likewise (->) a b

May 2012: Polymorphic record fields

The type of any record field can now be polymorphic, i.e. it may introduce type variables that are not parameters of the data type the constructor that contains the record field belongs to. Here is a simple example:

data F b = F { fun :: forall a. b a -> b a }

foo :: F []
foo = F reverse

bar :: F m -> m a -> m b -> (m a, m b)
bar F{fun} as bs = (fun as, fun bs)

baz = bar foo [0,1] [true,false]          -- ([1,0], [false, true])
drp = bar (F (drop 1)) [0,1] [true,false] -- ([1], [false])

The example is a bit contrived insofar as bar could be made simpler by just taking a rank 2 function instead of a record that holds a rank 2 function.